Contents

Acknowledgments

Notes on Transliteration and Sources

List of Figures, Maps and Tables

List of Abbreviations

List of Chinese Characters

Introduction

The Kazakh Khanates’ Place within the Central Eurasian World

1 The History of the Kazakh Steppe and the Kazakh Khanates

2 Themes to be Addressed

3 Methodology and Significance

4 Outline of Content

5 Description of Historical Sources

part 1

The ‘Kazakh Khanates’ and the History of the International Relations in Central Asia

Chapter 1

Reexamining the Kazakh Khanates’ “Foreign Relations in the East”

Introduction

1 A History of Research Regarding the Kazakh Khanates

2 A History of Research Regarding the Kazakh-Qing Connection

2.1 Imperial Russian Documents Concerning the Kazakh Khanates’ ‘Eastern’ Relations

2.2 Research Trends of the Soviet Era and Modern Kazakhstan

2.3 Chinese Research

3 Historical Relations between the Kazakh Steppe and Xinjiang

3.1. The Tavārīḫ-i Ḫamsa-yi Šarqī as a Source Regarding the History of Eastern Kazakhstan

3.2. Qurbān ‘alī’s Sources

3.3. Localism of THS

Conclusion

Chapter 2

The Impact of Russian Advances into Central Asia on Kazakh-Russian Relations

Introduction

1 The Petition for Russian Subject Status and an Oath on the Quran

1.1 The Oath of Abulkhair

1.2 The Relationship between the Small Juz and the Government of Nadir Shah

1.3 Subjection to the Jungar

1.4 Russian Idea of “Subject Status” Compared to the Qing View of “Subject”

2 The Kazakh Title of “Khan”

2.1 “Khan” of the Small Juz Kazakhs

2.2 Reign of Ablai and His ‘Bi-Lateral’ Diplomacy

2.3 Developments from the Eighteenth Century

3 Establishment of the 1822 Regulation within the Middle Juz

3.1 The 1822 Regulation and the Development of a System of Administrative Districts

3.2 The Transformation of District Borders into National Borders

Conclusion

part 2

The Foundations of Kazakh-Qing Relations

Chapter 3

The Problem of Kazakh Subjection and the Russian-Qing Relationship in Central Asia

Introduction

1 The Jungars and Central Asia within Russian-Qing Relations

1.1 The Treaty of Kyakhta and Its Effects on Central Asia

1.2 The Beginnings of a Russian-Qing Relationship in ‘the West’

1.3 Suspension and Reopening of the Russian-Qing Relationship within Central Asia.

2 The Toši Mission’s Proposals (1731) and Russia-Qing Negotiations

2.1 The Wording of the Toši Mission’s Proposals

2.2 Reappraisal of the Toši Proposals

3 The Russian-Qing Negotiations of 1756–1758 Regarding Central Asia

3.1 The Jungars and Amursana

3.2 The Altais (Altan Noor- Uriankhai)

3.3 The Kazakhs

Conclusion

Chapter 4

The Differing Nature of the Three Kazakh Juz and the Three “Bu” (Sections) Mentioned in Qing Historical Sources

Introduction

1 Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Kazakh Social Structure as Described within Qing Historical Sources

2 The Meaning of the Term “Hasake” within Qing Historical Records

2.1 Review of Existing Research

2.2 Analysis of Materials

2.3 The Era of the Zuobu and Youbu Sections

2.4 Appearance of the Small Juz

2.5 What Is Meant by the Term “Western Section” (Xibu)?

3 Relations between the Three Kazakh Juz and the Qing Empire

3.1 The Great Juz and the Qing

3.2 The Small Juz and the Qing

4 The Three Sections in the View of the Kazakhs

Conclusion

Chapter 5

Titles of Kazakh Sultans Bestowed by the Qing Empire: The 1824 Case of Sultan Ghubaidulla

Introduction

1 Qing Titles for the Kazakhs

1.1 The Relationship between Kazakh Tribute to the Qing Court and the Bestowal of Qing Titles

1.2 Russian Perspectives Regarding the Qing System of Bestowing Titles

1.3 The reception of Qing envoys

2 Sultan Ghubaidulla and His Han Title

2.1 The ‘Last’ Tribute Mission from the Kazakhs

2.2 Details of the Ghubaidulla Incident

2.3 Ghubaidulla’s Document

2.4 Related Russo-Qing Relations

3 Titles for Kazakhs Thereafter

3.1 Ghubaidulla After the Incident

3.2 The Response of the Qing Court

Conclusion

part 3

Russo-Qing Relations and the Fate of the Kazakh Khanates

Chapter 6

Kazakh Participation in the Russo-Chinese Trade of Central Asia

Introduction

1 The Kyakhta Trade and Russo-Qing Trade Throughout Western Siberia

2 Russian and Qing Trading Policies

2.1 Routes Connecting the Two Regions

2.2 Russian Policies

2.3 Qing Policy in Xinjiang and West Mongolia and Its Results

3 Intermediary Role of the Kazakhs in Russo-Qing Trade

3.1 Dealings of the Kazakhs with Russia and the Qing

3.2 Kazakh Intermediation

3.3 The Pillaging and Protection of Caravans

4 Changes in the Structure of Trade

4.1 The Rise of Khoqandi Merchants and the Decline of the Role of the Kazakhs

4.2 The Confused Situation on the Kazakh Steppe

4.3 Russia’s Goals

Conclusion

Chapter 7

The Transformation of the Russian-Qing Relationship and the Dissolution of the ‘Kazakh Khanates’

Introduction

1 Frontier Rule by the Two Empires: The Western Siberian Governor-General and the Ili Military Governor

1.1 Russia’s Western Siberian Governor-Generalship

1.2 The Establishment of Xinjiang and Ili Military Governor

2 The Role of the Kazakh Steppe within Russian-Qing Relations

2.1 Governmental Negotiations between Russia and the Qing Dynasty

2.2 Local Negotiations Related to the Establishment of Russian Districts

3 The Sultans in Transition

3.1 Changes in Qing Policy during the 1830s

3.2 Trends among the Kazakh Sultans

4 Friction Regarding the Annexation of the Great Juz and Establishment of the 1851 Treaty of Commerce between Russia and the Qing Dynasty

4.1 Tezek Sultan of the Great Juz

4.2 The Treaty of 1851

Conclusion

Conclusion

Bibliography

Index