Front Cover

MATERIALS ANALYSIS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

PUBLISHED AND FORTHCOMING TITLES IN THE ADVANCEDFORENSIC SCIENCE SERIES

MATERIALS ANALYSIS IN FORENSIC SCIENCE

Copyright

CONTENTS

SENIOR EDITOR: BIOGRAPHY

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

FOREWORD

Reference

PREFACE

1. Overview

Principles of Forensic Science

What Is Forensic Science?

The Trace as the Basic Unit of Forensic Science

Two Native Principles

Nonnative Principles

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Forensic Classification of Evidence

Introduction

Methods of Classification

Set Theory

Taxonomy

Manufacturing

Forensic Approaches to Classification

Class-Level Information

Uniqueness and Individualization

Relationships and Context

Further Reading

Interpretation/The Comparative Method

Introduction

Analogy and Comparison within a Forensic Process

The Comparative Method within Forensic Science

Further Reading

Trace Evidence Overview

Introduction

Trace, Physical Evidence, or Trace Evidence?

Trace

Physical Evidence

Trace Evidence

Locard Exchange Principle

The Three Rs of Trace Evidence—Recognition, Recording, and Recovery

Recovery of Trace Evidence

Examination of Trace Evidence

Generalities

Analysis

Recent Analytical Developments

Interpretation of Trace Evidence

Conclusion

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Microchemistry

Introduction

Types of Microchemical Reactions

Spot Tests

Crystal Tests

Solubility Tests

Microchemical Analysis

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Materials Analysis and Failure Analysis

The Role of Materials Analysis in Determining Causation of Failure

Techniques for Determining Morphology

Microscopy in Materials Analysis

Optical Microscopy

Specimen Preparation for Microstructural Examination

Analysis of failed structural steel using optical microscopy

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Analysis of a ductile iron pipe failure with scanning electron microscopy

Techniques for Determining Composition

The Physics of Spectroscopy

X-ray Spectroscopy

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy

Choosing between EDS and WDS

Using EDS to identify an unknown material

X-ray fluoroscopy

Auger Electron Spectroscopy

Absorption Spectroscopy

Mass Spectrometry

Analysis of process effluents using mass spectrometry

Thermal and TGA

Selecting the Appropriate Technique

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Chemometrics

Introduction

Preprocessing Techniques

Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering

Principal Component Analysis

Discriminant Analysis

Conclusions

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Key Terms

Review Questions

Discussion Questions

Additional Readings

2. Methods

Capillary Electrophoresis: Basic Principles

Introduction

Fundamentals of CE

Electrophoretic Mobilities

Electroosmosis and the Electroosmotic Flow

EOF Control

Background Electrolytes

Maximizing Efficiency

Modes of Separation in Electrophoresis

Zone Electrophoresis

Electrophoretic Chromatography

Sieving Electrophoresis

Electrochromatography

Isoelectric Focusing

Isotachophoresis

Instrumentation and Sample Handling

Sample Concentration

Detection Methods

Spectrophotometric methods

Mass spectrophotometric detection

Electrochemical detection

Future Directions

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Capillary Electrophoresis in Forensic Biology

Introduction

CE Methodology

Injection

Separation

Detection

Interpretation of Electropherograms

Recent Developments in CE

CE Typing Methodologies Used by Forensic Biologists

STR Typing

Mitochondria Typing for Individualization

SNP Typing for Individualization

SNP Typing for Biological Ancestry and Physical Identification Typing

Other Uses

The Future of CE in Forensic Biology

Conclusion

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Capillary Electrophoresis in Forensic Chemistry

Introduction

Applications

Illicit Drug Analysis

Toxicology

Forensic Medicine

Inks

Explosives and Gunshot Residues

Miniaturization

Further Reading

Chromatography: Basic Principles

Introduction

Classification of Chromatographic Techniques

Chromatographic Distribution Equilibria

Band Broadening in Chromatography

Additional Comments on Band Broadening

Optimization of Chromatographic Performance

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Gas Chromatography

Introduction

GC Columns

Gas Pressure and Flow Control

Oven Temperature

Sample Introduction

Split/Splitless Injection

On-Column Injection

Solid Injection

Programmed Temperature Volatilization Injection

Headspace Introduction

Pyrolysis GC

Simple Injection—Dual Detection

Detectors

Flame Ionization Detector

Nitrogen–Phosphorus Detector or Alkali FID

Electron Capture Detector

Mass Selective Detector

Further Reading

Liquid and Thin-Layer Chromatography

Introduction

Column (or Liquid–Solid) Chromatography

HPLC and Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Thin-Layer Chromatography

Acknowledgments

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

Introduction

Ionization Techniques

Sample Preparation and Injection Techniques

Matrix Effects

Overview of State-of-the-Art LC-MS Instrumentation

Application of LC-MS to Forensic Sciences

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

Introduction

Multiplied Powers

Different Ways of Looking at Data

Requirements

Instrumentation

Forensic Applications

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Mass Spectrometry

Introduction

Instrumentation

Sample Introduction

Ion Source

Electron Ionization

Chemical Ionization

Electrospray Ionization

Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Ionization

Mass Analyzer

Sector Mass Analyzer

Time-of-Flight Mass Analyzer

Quadrupole Mass Analyzer

Ion Trap Mass Analyzer

Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Ion Detector

Data Interpretation

Forensic Applications of MS

Further Reading

Relevant Websites

Analytical Light Microscopy

Introduction

Microscopes Used in Analysis in the Forensic Sciences

Stereomicroscope

Compound Microscope

Brightfield

Comparison

Polarized light

Hot stage

Phase contrast

Fluorescence

Further Reading

Microscopy (Electron)

Introduction

Additional Instrumentation for Electron Microscope Applications

Forensic Applications of SEM

Further Reading

Presumptive Chemical Tests

Introduction

Chemical Tests on Drug Evidence

Color Tests

Microcrystalline Tests

Chemical Tests on Explosives Evidence

Chemical Tests on Biological Specimens

Further Reading

Nonchromatographic Separation Techniques

Introduction

Physical Separations

Volatile Materials

Chemical Separations

Solvent Extraction

Solid-Phase Extraction

Purification via Chemical Reaction

Separation of Enantiomers

Microcrystalline Tests

Ion Mobility Spectrometry

Acknowledgment

Further Reading

Spectroscopic Techniques

Introduction

Identification of Substances

Infrared Spectroscopy

Raman Spectroscopy

X-ray Fluorescence and Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy-Dispersive X-ray

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Quantification of Substances

Ultraviolet and Visible Spectroscopy

AAS and Atomic Emission Spectroscopy

Related Techniques

Molecular Fluorescence and Chemiluminescence

Synchrotron Techniques

Further Reading

Spectroscopy: Basic Principles