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Innovation in Near-Surface Geophysics: Instrumentation, Application, and Data Processing Methods

Copyright

Contents

Contributors

Chapter 1: Passive and active electric methods: New frontiers of application

1. Introduction

2. About of Self Potential Method

2.1. SP Field Data Acquisition

2.2. SP Data Processing

3. About Electrical Resistivity Method

4. Electrical Resistivity Field Data Acquisition

4.1. Some Field Application: The Archaeological Site of Sagalassos (Turkey)

4.1.1. Area 1 Geophysical Results

4.1.2. Area 2 Geophysical Results

5. Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 2: Advances in electric resistivity tomography: Theory and case studies

1. Introduction and Background

2. Modeling, Data Acquisition, and Inversion

2.1. Forward Modeling

2.1.1. Theory

2.1.2. Electrode effect

2.1.3. Meshing

2.2. Data Acquisition

2.3. Inversion

2.3.1. Inversion parameters

2.3.2. Model appraisal

2.3.3. Using a priori information

3. Case Studies

3.1. Archaeological Prospection

3.1.1. Site description and acquisition parameters

3.1.2. Results

3.2. Engineering Geology

3.2.1. Site description and acquisition parameters

3.2.2. Results

4. Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Chapter 3: Time-domain reflectometry: Current uses and new possibilities

1. Overview of TDR Applications

2. Basic Principles

3. Typical TDR Measurements

4. TD/FD Combined Approach

5. TDR in Frequency Domain

6. Infinite Transmission Lines

7. Finite Transmission Lines

8. Higher Order Modes

9. Investigation of Lossless and Dispersionless Materials

10. Investigation of Lossy and/or Dispersive Materials

11. Conclusions

References

Chapter 4: Geochemical constraints in near-surface geophysical surveying from in situ XRF spectrometry: Field trials at tw ...

1. Introduction

2. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy-Theory and Methodology

3. Survey Sites

3.1. Site A

3.2. Site B

4. Survey Design and Implementation

4.1. Geophysical Considerations

4.2. Geochemical Considerations

4.3. Survey Implementation

5. Results

5.1. Geophysical Surveys

5.2. In Situ XRF Spectrometry

5.3. Laboratory Comparison

6. Interpretation and Discussion

6.1. Integrated Geophysical and Geochemical Interpretation

6.1.1. Site A

6.1.2. Site B

6.2. Controls on the Applicability of In Situ XRF Spectrometry

6.3. Practicality of XRF Surveying

7. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 5: Advanced magnetic prospecting for archaeology with a vehicle-towed array of cesium magnetometers

1. Introduction

2. Methodology

3. Field Acquisition

4. Data Processing

5. Case Studies

5.1. Ham Hill, Somerset

5.2. Marden Henge Environs, Wiltshire

5.3. National Archaeological Identification Surveys (NAIS)

5.4. Stonehenge Southern World Heritage Site

5.5. Silchester Environs Project

6. Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Making sense of anomalies: Practices and challenges in the archaeological interpretation of geophysical data

1. Introduction

1.1. Complex Relationship Between Measurements and Buried Features

1.1.1. Contrast

1.1.2. Nonuniqueness

1.1.3. Noise

1.2. Archaeological Interpretation: A Subjective Process

1.3. Aim of This Chapter

2. The Need to Ask Answerable Archaeological Questions

3. Interpretability Relies on Careful Data Acquisition and Processing

4. Enhancing the Interpretative Potential Through Data Combination

4.1. Calculation of Attributes

4.2. Combination of Different Geophysical and Remote Sensing Data Sets

4.2.1. Combined analysis of different data sets

4.2.2. Data integration

4.3. Evaluation by Means of Field Walking and Invasive Methods

4.3.1. Field walking

4.3.2. Coring, borehole logging and direct push soil sensing

4.3.3. Excavation

4.4. Legacy Data and Grey Literature

4.5. Discussion

5. Computer-Aided Object Detection

5.1. Human Interpretation and Computer Vision

5.2. Template Matching-Based Object Detection

5.3. Segmentation and Object-Based Image Analysis

5.3.1. Segmentation

5.3.2. Classification

5.3.3. Segmentation and classification based on the integration of different data sets

5.4. Discussion

6. Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 7: Efficiency of the magnetic method in surveying desert sites in Egypt and Sudan: Case studies

1. Desert Sites in Egypt and Sudan

2. Types of Sites and Their Location

3. Geological and Material Conditions of Magnetic Prospection

4. Past and Present of Desert Site Prospection in Egypt and Sudan

5. Measurement Methodology

6. Case Studies

6.1. Villages and Cities

6.1.1. El-Amra

6.1.2. Berenike

6.2. Palatial Centres: Soniyat and Usli

6.3. Workers Settlement: Dahshur

6.4. Monastic Settlements

6.4.1. Bawit

6.4.2. Kellia/Pherme

6.5. Cemeteries and Cult Places

6.5.1. Abydos

6.5.2. Dayr al-Barsha

6.5.3. Dahshur valley temple

6.6. Production Centers: Hierakonpolis

6.7. Landscape Research

6.7.1. Medinet Watfa/Philoteris

6.7.2. Al-Qarah al-Hamra

7. Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 8: Advanced SFCW GPR systems

1. Introduction

2. Overview of the Step-Frequency Technique

3. Setting of the System for Correct Measurements

3.1. Dwell Time

3.2. Frequency Step

3.3. Number of Steps

4. Frequency to Time Conversion

5. Hardware of Step-Frequency Systems

5.1. 3D-Radar System

5.2. Reconfigurable Systems

6. Use of a Continuous Wave Step-Frequency GPR System and Multielement Antenna Array for Archaeological Surveys

7. Conclusions

References

Chapter 9: Putting it all together: Geophysical data integration

1. Data Integration in Archaeological Geophysics

2. Archaeo-Geophysical Data

2.1. Data Preprocessing

3. Goals of Data Integration

3.1. More Complete Visualizations

3.2. Data Reduction and Simplification

3.3. Context

3.4. Improve Accuracy of Subsurface Feature Identifications

3.5. A ``Test´´ of Other Detection Methods

3.6. Essential Data Needs and Improved Geophysical Understanding

4. The Role of GIS

5. Integrations by Data Type

5.1. One Geophysical Data Set

5.2. Integration of Multiple 2D Geophysical and Nongeophysical Data Sets

5.3. Integrating Data to Include the Vertical or Depth Dimension

6. Methods of 2D Integration

6.1. Basic Integrations of Multidimensional Data

6.1.1. Separate or side-by-side displays

6.1.2. Image integrations through overlays

6.2. Feature-Level Integrations

6.2.1. Interpretive vectors overlaid on prospection imagery

6.2.2. Interpretive vectors overlaid with each other

6.2.3. Automated object-based feature methods

6.3. Pixel-Level Integrations

6.3.1. Computer graphic integrations

6.3.2. Challenges to numerical/statistical integrations

Focus in distribution tails

Noise

Other distributional issues

Lack of correlation

6.3.3. Approaches to numerical/statistical integrations

Additional preprocessing

Arithmetic integrations

Binary and Boolean methods

Statistical integrations: Principal components and related methods

Statistical integrations: Unsupervised classification

Statistical integrations: Supervised classification

Predicting geophysical properties with air and space data

7. Case Studies

7.1. Case Study 1: Feature- and Pixel-Level Integrations

7.2. Case Study 2: Point Cloud Fusion

7.2.1. Introduction and background

7.2.2. Methods

7.2.3. Results

7.3. Case Study 3: Automatic Feature Recognition

7.3.1. Preprocessing

7.3.2. Recognizing houses

7.3.3. Recognizing the ceremonial house

7.3.4. Recognizing the fortification ditch

7.3.5. Recognizing borrow pits

7.3.6. Recognizing bastions

7.3.7. Recognizing the plaza

7.3.8. Recognizing hearths

7.3.9. Recognizing storage pits

7.4. Case Study 4: Exploring Local Statistics

8. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10: Ground-penetrating radar for the evaluation and monitoring of transport infrastructures

1. Introduction

2. Roads, Highways and Airport Runways

2.1. Objectives and Methodology

2.2. Combination of GPR With Complementary Nondestructive Testing Techniques

2.3. Example and TU1208 Research Activities

2.3.1. Example: Detection of areas with subgrade settlements on a highway

2.3.2. Research activities carried out within COST Action TU1208

3. Railways

3.1. Objectives and Methodology

3.2. Combination of GPR With Complementary Nondestructive Testing Techniques

3.3. Example and TU1208 Research Activities

3.3.1. Example: Studying the evolution of the track geometry and identifying zones with different ballast conditions

3.3.2. Research activities carried out within COST Action TU1208

4. Bridges

4.1. Objectives and Methodology

4.2. Combination With Complementary Nondestructing Testing Techniques

4.3. Example and TU1208 Research Activities

4.3.1. Example: Interpretation of real data-The case studies of the Roman Bibei bridge and the medieval Traba bridge

4.3.2. Research activities carried out within COST Action TU1208

5. Tunnels

5.1. Objectives and Methodology

5.2. Combination with Complementary Nondestructive Testing Techniques

5.3. Research Activities Carried out Within COST Action TU1208

6. Electromagnetic Modeling as a Tool for GPR Data Interpretation

6.1. Objectives and Methodology

6.2. Electromagnetic Simulators Developed in COST Action TU1208

6.2.1. The new open-source version of gprMax

6.2.2. The freeware tool E2GPR

6.3. Example of Application

7. Conclusions and Trends

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 11: THz imaging and data processing: State of the art and perspective

1. Introduction

2. THz Measurement Setups and Configurations

2.1. THz Pulsed Systems

2.2. Continuous Wave THz Systems

3. THz Imaging

3.1. THz Diffraction Tomography

3.2. THz Tomosynthesis

3.3. THz Time of Flight

3.4. THz Holography

4. Enhanced THz Imaging

4.1. Fourier Filter

4.2. Singular Value Decomposition Filter

4.3. A Comparative Example

5. Test Cases

5.1. THz for Artwork Characterization

5.2. THz for Food Quality Control

6. Conclusions and Perspectives

References

Chapter 12: Ambient noise techniques to study near-surface in particular geological conditions: a brief review

1. Introduction

2. Ambient Vibration Measurements in Mud Volcano Areas

3. Ambient Vibration Measurements in Fault Zones

4. Local Seismic Response in Landslide Involved Slopes

5. Ambient Noise Measurements in Presence of Velocity Inversion

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

Chapter 13: Multimethodological approach to investigate urban and suburban archaeological sites

1. Introduction

2. Integration Methods

3. Ancient Appian Way Site

3.1. Sites Characteristics

3.2. Geophysical Surveys

3.3. Data Processing and Results

3.3.1. GPR data

3.3.2. ERT data

4. Data Integration Methods

4.1. Qualitative Integration (Contour Maps Overlays and RGB)

4.2. Discrete Quantitative Integration (Binary Sum and Cluster Analysis)

4.3. Continuous Quantitative Integration (Sum, Product and Principal Component Analysis)

5. Santa Balbina Site

5.1. Site Characteristics

5.2. Geophysical Surveys

5.3. Data Processing and Results

5.3.1. GPR data

5.3.2. ERT data

6. Data Integration Methods

6.1. Qualitative Integration (Contour Maps Overlays and RGB)

6.2. Discrete Quantitative Integration (Binary Sum and Cluster Analysis)

6.3. Continuous Quantitative Integration (Sum, Product and Principal Component Analysis)

7. Cerveteri Archeological Site

7.1. Site Characteristics

7.2. Geophysical Surveys

7.3. Data Processing and Results

7.3.1. GPR data

7.3.2. Magnetic data

7.3.3. ERT data

8. Data Integration Methods

8.1. Qualitative Integration (Contour Maps Overlays and RGB)

8.2. Discrete Quantitative Integration (Binary Sum and Cluster Analysis)

8.3. Continuous Quantitative Integration (Sum, Product and Principal Component Analysis)

9. Heraion Archeological Site (Turkey)

9.1. Site Characteristic

9.2. Geophysical Surveys

9.3. Data Processing and Results

9.3.1. GPR data

9.3.2. Magnetic data

10. Data Integration Methods

10.1. Qualitative Integration (Contour Maps Overlays and RGB)

10.2. Discrete Quantitative Integration (Binary Sum and Cluster Analysis)

10.3. Continuous Quantitative Integration (Sum, Product and Principal Component Analysis)

11. Conclusions

References

Further Reading

Index

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