Chapter
2 Young Children with Mentally Ill Parents
RELILIENCE MODELS: APPLICATION TO THE FIRST YEARS OF LIFE
Parent Emotion Processing
Parent Cognitions about the Self and the Child
Attributions about the Child
Attributions about the Self
Inferences Regarding Prevention
Early Development and Resilience Models
3 Risk and Protective Factors for Children of Depressed Parents
NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF CHILDREN OF DEPRESSD PARENTS
Defining Constructs in Studies of Children of Depressed Parents
Outcomes of Children of Depressed Parents
Studies of Infants and Young Children
Studies of School-Age Children and Adolescents
VOLNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS FOR CHILDREN AT RISK FOR DEPRESSION
Genetic and Biological Risk Factors
Quality of the Parent–Child Relationship
Marital Factors and Children’s Risk
Stressful Life Events and Conditions
Vulnerability and Protective Factors
Protective/Risk Factors in Main Effects Analyses
Interaction Models to Predict Resilience in High-Risk Children
LIMITS OF RESILIENT ADAPTATION
CURRENT LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Conceptual and Empirical Challenges
IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS AND SOCIAL POLICIES
4 Resilience and Vulnerability among Sons of Alcoholics
ADAPTATION IN THE FACE OF DIFFERING LEVELS OF ADVERSITY: A 2×2 MATRIX
TRACKING VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE IN A PROSPECTIVE LONGITUDINAL STUDY
ASSESSING ADAPTATION AND ADVERSITY
Family Adversity Indicators I
Family Adversity Indicators II
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILDREN IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS
DEVELOPMENTAL OUTCOMES FROM CHILDHOOD TO EARLY ADOLESCENCE: DIFFERING TRAJECTORIES
RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESILIENCE
A Longer-Term Developmental Perspective on the Findings
Conclusions and Implications for Prevention
5 Maternal Drug Abuse versus Other Psychological Disturbances
MATERNAL DRUG ABUSE AND COEXISTING PROBLEMS: DISENTANGLING RISKS TO CHILDREN
Relative Risks: Maternal Drug Abuse versus Affective Disturbances
PROTECTIVE AND VULNERABILITY PROCESSES
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Maternal Drug Abuse versus Affective/Anxiety Disorders
Group Comparisons: Categorical and Continuous Indicators
Group Comparisons: Resilient Adaptation
Maternal Drug Abuse versus Affective/Anxiety Disorders: Variable-Based Analyses
Vulnerability and Protective Processes
Maternal Psychiatric Disorders: Specificity of Effects
Vulnerability and Protective Processes
Limitations, Implications, and Conclusions
6 Resilience to Childhood Adversity
Measures of Psychosocial Adjustment (16–21 Years)
Conduct/Antisocial Personality Disorders
Alcohol/Illicit Drug Dependence
Measures of Childhood Adversity (0–16 Years)
Measures of Socioeconomic Adversity
Measures of Parental Change and Conflict
Measures of Child Abuse Exposure
Measures of Parental Adjustment
Measures of Resilience Factors (0–16 Years)
Sample Size and Sample Bias
The Prevalence of Childhood Adversity
Modeling Resilience Processes
Resilience and the Cumulative Effects of Childhood Family Adversity
Personality and Related Factors
Affiliations and Attachments
Cumulative Effects of Resilience Factors
7 Sequelae of Child Maltreatment
VIRGINIA LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF CHILD MALTREATMENT
Identification of Maltreated Children
Children’s Experiences of Maltreatment
Assessment of Children’s Adjustment
Behavioral and Emotional Adjustment
Assessment of Potential Protective Factors
Friendship Reciprocity and Quality
Vulnerability and Resilience among Maltreated Children
Prevalence of Resilience among Maltreated Children
Sequelae of Maltreatment: Risks for Different Adjustment Domains
Pathways to Maladjustment among Maltreated Children
Protective Factors among Maltreated Children
The Likelihood of Resilience as a Function of Protective Factors
OVERVIEW AND IMPLICATIONS
Prevalence and Stability over Time of Resilience among Maltreated Children
Processes Underlying Vulnerability and Resilience
Implications for Intervention and Policy
8 Risk and Resilience in Children Coping with Their Parents’ Divorce and Remarriage
THE ADJUSTMENT OF CHILDREN IN DIVORCED AND REMARRIED FAMILIES
CHALLENGES AND CHANGES IN EXPERIENCES OF CHILDREN IN DIVORCED AND REMARRIED FAMILIES
PROBLEMS PRECEDING DIVORCE
VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN CHILDREN ADJUSTING TO DIVORCE AND REMARRIAGE
Individual Characteristics as Vulnerability and Protective Factors
Temperament and Personality Characteristics
Family-Level Vulnerability and Protective Factors
Parent–Child Relationships
Extrafamilial Vulnerability and Protective Factors
Legal and Therapeutic Interventions
9 Correlational and Experimental Study of Resilience in Children of Divorce and Parentally Bereaved Children
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS
ADVERSITIES FOR BEREAVED CHILDREN AND CHILDREN OF DIVORCE
RESOURCES FOR CHILDREN OF DIVORCE AND BEREAVED CHILDREN
Individual Child Resources
Coping and Coping Efficacy
Appraisal of Stressful Situations
Summary of Individual-Level Resources
Parent–Child Relationships: Parental Warmth
Parent–Child Relationships: Discipline
Parent–Child Relationships: Warmth and Discipline
Summary of Parent–Child Relationship and Family-Level Resources
Interventions as Experimental Studies of Resilience
Small Theory of Resilience
New Beginnings Program for Children of Divorce
Family Bereavement Program
Implications for Developmental Theory
Part II EXOSYSTEMIC AND SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC RISKS
THE ORGANIZATIONAL MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT
A CLASSICAL VIEW OF PROTECTIVE FACTORS
THE PLACE OF DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY IN RESILIENCE RESEARCH
CHARACTERIZING EARLY COMPETENCE
IMPLICATIONS FOR PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
11 Poverty and Early Childhood Adjustment
POVERTY AS A RISK FACTOR FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT
CONCEPTUALIZING POSITIVE ADJUSTMENT AMONG YOUNG IMPOVERISHED CHILDREN
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH POSITIVE ADJUSTMENT
THE PITT MOTHER AND CHILD PROJECT
Participants and Procedures
Child Factors Tested for Association with Adjustment
Family Factors Tested for Association with Adjustment
12 Emerging Perspectives on Context Specificity of Children’s Adaptation and Resilience
CONTEXT SPECIFICITY AND PROCESSES OF RESILIENCE
Lessons from Developmental Psychopathology
A Proposed Conceptual Framework for Studying Resilience in Context
Evaluating Two Perspectives on Context-Specific Adaptation among Urban Children
EARLY RCRP STUDIES: INVESTIGATING UNIVERSAL DEVELOPMENTAL ASSETS
Social-Learning Model for Children’s Resilience
Design of Studies and Selection of Cohorts
Measuring Family Stress Processes
Cohort Selection and Subgroup Designation
Child-Centered Resources Predicting Competence in Adversity
Realistic Control Attributions about Family Adversity
Personal Mastery: Efficacy, Perceived Competence, and Future Expectations
Social-Emotional Competencies
Family Resources Predicting Competence
Social-Learning versus Attachment-Based Models of Parent Protection
Preventive Intervention: Promoting Child Competencies
Early RCRP Studies: Contributions and Limitations
RECENT RCRP STUDIES EVALUATING CONTEXT-SPECIFIC ADAPTATION
Modifications in the RCRP Conceptual Model
Lives in Progress: A 6-Year Follow-up of Cohort 2 Youths
Emotion Regulation and Competence in High vs. Low Adversity Families
Mastery Beliefs and Adjustment: Effects of Youth-Specific Contexts
Accuracy of Self-Evaluations of Competence
Future Expectations and Adjustment: Effects of Behavior Functioning
Peer Group Contexts and Protective Effects of Afterschool Activities
SUMMING UP: PERSPECTIVES ON CONTEXT SPECIFICITY OF CHILDREN’S ADAPTATION
13 Holistic Contextual Perspectives on Risk, Protection, and Competence among Low-Income Urban Adolescents
RISK, PROTECTION, AND COMPETENCE
Holistic, Individual-in-Context Perspective
Importance of Intensive Within-Group Samples
The Need to Examine Positive Developmental Outcomes
The Congruence of Pattern-Centered Data Analytic Strategies
RISK, PROTECTION, AND CONTEXTUAL COMPETENCE AMONG LOW-INCOME URBAN ADOLESCENTS
The Adolescent Pathways Project (APP)
The Cascading Nature of Poverty into Proximal Social Contexts
Context-Based Vulnerable and Protective Circumstances: Nature and Outcomes
Profiles of Perceived Family Transactions
Profiles of Perceived Peer Transactions
Holistic Patterns of Contextual Competence: Nature and Outcomes
Revisiting the Guiding Tenets
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INTERVENTION
ADOLESCENCE AND URBAN POVERTY
ADOLESCENT PROBLEM BEHAVIORS AND OUTCOMES
VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS FOR POOR URBAN ADOLESCENTS
Violence and Victimization
Community Organizations and Youth-Serving Agencies
Peer and Family Influences
Harsh and Punitive Parenting
Parental Support and Protection
LIMITS OF RESILIENT ADAPTATION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTION
15 Adaptation among Youth Facing Multiple Risks
REPRESENTATIVE RISK FACTORS
Multiple Outcomes and Multiple Risks
RESILIENCE AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTIVE FACTORS
Income and Marital Status
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE FACTORS
DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES
Pervasive Effects of Multiple Risks
Small Effects of Single Risks
Individual Competence Is a Weak Protective Factor
Nonuniversality of Protective Factors
Necessity of Multiple Interventions to Counter Multiple Risks
16 Positive Adaptation among Youth Exposed to Community Violence
RATES OF EXPOSURE TO VIOLENCE
IMPACT OF VIOLENCE EXPOSURE ON CHILDREN
Posttraumatic Stress and Internalizing Disorders
Neurodevelopmental/Biological Effects
Summary of Exposure Impact
VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE IMPACT OF VIOLENCE
Proximity and Relationship to the Victim or Perpetrator
Individual Characteristics
LIMITS TO RESILIENT ADAPTATION
IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY AND RESEARCH ON RESILIENCE
IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTION
Community-Level Intervention
Interventions for Those Exposed
17 Perceived Discrimination and Resilience
PUERTO RICANS AS A LATINO SUBGROUP
PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION AS A RISK FACTOR FOR POOR MENTAL HEALTH
PROCESSES THAT MEDIATE THE RISK OF PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION
Age as a Proxy for Cognitive Development
A Shared Worldview of Differential Power for Interpreting Events
PERCEIVING DISCRIMINATION AS PROTECTION FROM THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF RACISM
VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS THAT MODERATE THE RISK OF PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION
FUTURE DIRECTIONS: RESEARCH
18 Promoting Resilience through Early Childhood Intervention
ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE ABOUT EFFECTIVENESS AND PROTECTION
NEW DIRECTIONS IN INTERVENTION RSEARCH
CONTRIBUTIONS OF CONFIRMATORY PROGRAM EVALUATION
HYPOTHESIS OF PROTECTIVE MECHANISM IN EARLY INTERVENTION
INTERVENTION FINDINGS IN THE CHICAGO LONGITUDINAL STUDY
Protective Effects of Participation in Intervention
Mechanisms of Intervention Effects
For Whom Are Intervention Services Most Effective?
19 Toward Building a Better Brain
A GENERAL DEFINITION OF ENRICHMENT
EXPERIENCE AND THE BRAIN: A BRIEF HISTORY
THE ENRICHED ENVIRONMENT PARADIGM
BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS OF ENRICHMENT
ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS OF OBSERVED EFFECTS OF ENRICHED ENVIRONMENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT FOR HUMANS: EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND ENRICHMENT
RATS 1, HUMANS 0: SOME FACTORS MEDIATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HUMAN ENRICHMENT
Are the Rat and Human Enrichment Paradigms Comparable?
Intensity and Quantity of Exposure
MECHANISMS OF ENRICHMENT: SO HOW DOES THE ENVIRONMENT GET INTO THE BRAIN?
A MODEL OF HUMAN ENRICHMENT
A Model System: Cognition
Social and Emotional Functioning
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
20 Genetic Influences on Risk and Protection
G×E: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE
rGE: DIVERSITY IN MECHANISMS
FUTURE DIRECTIONS: ANALYTIC AND CONCEPTUAL CONSIDERATIONS IN STUDYING RESILIENCE
FUTURE DIRECTIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS
21 Research on Resilience
RESEARCH ON RESILIENCE: QUESTIONS AND CLARIFICATIONS
Risk Research versus Resilience Research
Defining Resilience: Approaches to Measuring Risk and Positive Adaptation
Protective and Vulnerability Factors
Future Directions: Considerations in Studying Protective and Vulnerability Factors
Summary: Conceptualizing and Designing Studies of Resilience
INTERVENTIONS BASED ON RESILIENCE RESEARCH
Salient Risk Modifiers: Influences Involving the Family, the Community, and the Child
Prioritizing Domains: Implications for Interventions
Limits to Resilient Adaptation: Covert Distress Underlying Manifest Competence
Future Directions: Applied Research
Summary: Guidelines for Future Interventions
Resilience and Vulnerability
：Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities
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