Title Page

Copyright Page

Contents

List of Contributors

Preface

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Evolution of Wireless and Cellular Communication

1.1.1 1 G

1.1.2 2 G

1.1.3 2.5 G

1.1.4 2.75 G

1.1.5 3 G

1.1.6 3.5 G

1.1.7 4 G/LTE

1.2 LTE Architecture

1.2.1 Communications Perspective Challenges in LTE Networks

1.2.1.1 Signalling System

1.2.1.2 Backward Compatibility

1.2.1.3 BS Efficiency

1.2.2 LTE Radio Frame

1.3 LTE Antennas

1.4 LTE Applications

1.4.1 Communications

1.4.2 Public Safety

1.4.3 Device-to-Device Communications

1.4.4 Video Streaming

1.4.5 Voice over LTE (VoLTE)

1.4.6 Internet of Things

1.4.7 Wearable Systems

1.4.8 Cloud Computing

1.5 Book Organization

References

Part I LTE Femtocells

Chapter 2 LTE Femtocells

2.1 Introduction

2.1.1 Cross-Tier Interference

2.1.2 Co-Tier Interference

2.1.3 Downlink Interference Modelling

2.1.4 Uplink Interference Modelling

2.2 Platform for Femtocell Deployment

2.3 LTE Architecture Overview

2.3.1 LTE Downlink Transmission

2.3.2 LTE Uplink Transmission

2.4 LTE Femtocell Interference Analysis

2.4.1 Scenario 1: Cross-Tier Interference Analysis

2.4.2 Scenario 2: Effects of Femtocell Access Mode Deployment

2.4.3 Scenario 3: Co-Tier Interference Analysis

2.4.4 Scenario 4: Effects of Varying FAP Transmit Power Levels on MUEs

2.5 Interference Mitigation: Current State of the Art

2.5.1 Spectrum Access/Frequency Assignment

2.5.2 Power Control

2.5.3 Antenna Schemes

2.6 Cognitive Femtocells: A Smart Solution to a Complex Problem

2.7 Summary

References

Chapter 3 Interference Mitigation in Cognitive Radio-Based LTE Femtocells

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Femtocells

3.2.1 Femtocells – Interference versus Deployment

3.2.2 Femtocells – Typical Interference Mitigation Techniques

3.2.2.1 Spectrum Access/Frequency Assignment Schemes

3.2.2.2 Power Control (PC) Schemes

3.2.2.3 Antenna Schemes

3.3 Interference Mitigation in Femtocells using Cognitive Radio

3.3.1 Cognitive Interference Mitigation

3.3.1.1 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – PC

3.3.1.2 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – Spectrum Access

3.3.1.3 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – Antenna Schemes

3.3.1.4 Cognitive Interference Mitigation – Joint Schemes

3.3.2 Cognitive Interference Mitigation versus Conventional Interference Mitigation

3.4 Summary

References

Chapter 4 Coverage Area-Based Power Control for Interference Management in LTE Femtocells

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Coverage Radius Based Power Control Scheme (PS)

4.2.1 Radius Limit Setting

4.2.2 Initial Coverage Radius

4.2.3 Self-Update

4.2.4 Final Radius

4.3 System Model

4.4 Performance Analysis

4.4.1 Results and Discussion

4.4.1.1 SINR Cross-Tier (Single Cell)

4.4.1.2 SINR Co-Tier (Single Cell)

4.4.1.3 Downlink Throughput (Single Cell)

4.4.1.4 Co- and Cross-Tier SINR (Single Cell versus Multicell)

4.4.1.5 Droppage in SINR (Single Cell versus Multicell)

4.4.1.6 Coverage Area Bounds and Impact on SINR (Single Cell versus Multicell)

4.5 Summary

References

Chapter 5 Energy Management in LTE Femtocells

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Architecture of LTE Networks

5.2.1 Communications Perspective Challenges in LTE Networks

5.2.1.1 Signalling System

5.2.1.2 Backward Compatibility

5.2.1.3 BS Efficiency

5.2.2 Importance of Energy Management in LTE Networks

5.3 Classification of ES Schemes

5.3.1 Static Power Consumption

5.3.2 Dynamic Power Consumption

5.4 Energy Efficient Resource Allocation

5.4.1 Hybrid FBS and MBS Based Schemes

5.4.2 Link Adaptation Schemes

5.4.3 Cross Layer Resource Allocation Schemes

5.4.4 MBSFN Resource Allocation Scheme

5.5 Bandwidth Expansion Schemes

5.5.1 CoMP Based Coverage Expansion

5.5.2 Time Compression (TCoM) Scheme

5.5.3 Bandwidth Expansion Mode (BEM) Scheme

5.5.4 Component Carrier Based Schemes

5.5.5 Scheduling Based Schemes

5.6 Load Balancing Schemes

5.6.1 Distance Aware Schemes

5.6.2 Coverage Expansion Based Schemes

5.6.3 Distributed Schemes

5.6.4 Shared Relay Based Schemes

5.6.5 CRN Adopted Switching Off of a BS

5.6.6 Reduced Early Handover (REHO) Scheme

5.7 Comparative Analysis

5.8 Open Research Issues

5.9 Summary

References

Chapter 6 Spectrum Sensing Mechanisms in Cognitive Radio Based LTE Femtocells

6.1 Fundamentals of Signal Processing

6.1.1 Channel Model

6.1.1.1 Additive Gaussian Noise Channel

6.1.1.2 Linear Filter Channel

6.1.1.3 Band Limited Channel

6.1.2 Modulation Technique

6.1.3 Error Probability

6.2 Spectrum Sensing Techniques

6.2.1 Primary Transmitter Detection

6.2.1.1 Energy Detector

6.2.1.2 Matched Filter Detection

6.2.1.3 Cyclostationary Feature Detection

6.2.1.4 Waveform Detection

6.2.1.5 Wavelet Detection

6.2.1.6 Hybrid Sensing

6.2.1.7 Multi-Taper Spectrum Sensing

6.2.2 Collaborative/Cooperative Detection

6.2.3 Interference Temperature Detection

6.2.4 Primary Receiver Detection

6.3 History Assisted Spectrum Sensing

6.4 Model- and Statistics-Based Spectrum Sensing Classification

6.5 Challenges and Issues

6.6 Summary

References

Part II Antennas for LTE Femtocells

Chapter 7 Antenna Consideration for LTE Femtocells

7.1 Antenna Fundamentals

7.1.1 Input Impedance and Matching

7.1.2 Bandwidth

7.1.3 Radiation Pattern

7.1.4 Directivity and Gain

7.1.5 Efficiency

7.1.6 Polarization

7.2 Antenna Requirements for LTE Femtocells

7.2.1 Frequency Bands

7.2.2 Form Factor and Size Limitation

7.2.3 Impedance Matching, Directivity, Gain and Efficiency

7.2.4 Directionality

7.2.5 Polarization

7.2.6 Human Body Effects and Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)

7.2.7 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)

References

Chapter 8 Multiband Antennas for LTE Femtocells

8.1 Fundamentals of Multiband Antennas

8.1.1 Multiband Techniques

8.1.1.1 Higher Order Resonances

8.1.1.2 Multiple Resonant Structures

8.2 Types of Multiband Antennas

8.3 Multiband Antenna Design: Case Studies

8.3.1 Multi-Slot Antenna

8.3.1.1 Antenna Geometry

8.3.1.2 Antenna Performance Evaluation

8.3.2 Patch-Loop Combination Antenna

8.3.2.1 Antenna Configuration

8.3.2.2 Antenna Performance

8.4 Open Research Issues

References

Chapter 9 Reconfigurable Antennas for LTE Femtocells

9.1 Fundamentals of Reconfigurable Antennas

9.1.1 Types of Reconfigurable Antennas

9.1.1.1 Use of Switches

9.1.1.2 Structural and Mechanical Changes

9.1.1.3 Material Changes

9.2 Realization of Reconfigurable Antennas

9.3 Rectangular Patch Reconfigurable LTE Femtocell Antenna

9.3.1 Design Conception

9.3.2 Frequency Reconfiguration Mode

9.3.3 Antenna Performance Evaluation

9.4 Circular Patch Reconfigurable LTE Femtocell Antenna

9.4.1 Frequency Reconfiguration Mode

9.4.2 Antenna Performance Evaluation

9.5 Open Research Issues

References

Chapter 10 Multimode Antennas for LTE Femtocells

10.1 Multimode Antennas: Fundamentals and Types

10.2 Design of a Compact Multimode LTE Femtocell Antenna for Handheld Devices

10.2.1 Numerical Analysis

10.2.2 Experimental Investigation

10.3 Design of a Multifunctional Compact Antenna for LTE Femtocells and GNSS Systems

10.3.1 Numerical Analysis

10.3.2 Experimental Investigation

10.4 Summary

10.5 Open Challenges and Issues

References

Chapter 11 Human Body Effects on LTE Femtocell Antennas

11.1 Interaction of the Human Body with Antennas

11.2 Numerical Modelling of the Human Body

11.2.1 Evaluation and Comparison of Numerical Models of Human Body

11.2.1.1 On-Body Transmission

11.2.1.2 Effects on Antenna Radiation Pattern

11.2.1.3 Electric Field Distribution

11.2.1.4 Specific Absorption Rate (SAR)

11.3 Evaluation of Human Body Effects on LTE Femtocell Antennas

11.3.1 On-Body Antenna Placement

11.3.2 Antenna-Body Separation

11.3.3 On-Body LTE Channel Characterization

11.3.4 On-Off Body LTE Channel Characterization

11.3.5 Body-to-Body LTE Channel Characterization

11.4 Open Research Issues

References

Chapter 12 The Road Ahead for LTE Femtocells

12.1 Future Prospects and Challenges

12.1.1 Spectrum Sharing

12.1.2 Intelligent/Efficient Spectrum Sensing Schemes

12.1.3 Primary/Secondary User Issue

12.1.4 Energy Saving

12.1.5 Security

12.1.6 Pilot Power/Coverage Radius Issue

12.1.7 Signalling Overhead

12.1.8 Proximity Services

12.1.9 The Internet-of-Things (IoT)

12.1.10 The Age of Big Data

12.1.11 5G and Femtocells

12.1.12 Antenna Design and Channel Modelling

References

Index

EULA