Front Cover

Introduction to Graphene

Copyright Page

Contents

About the Authors

1 Discovery of graphene and beyond

1.1 Summary

1.2 A Short History

1.3 Wonder Material

1.4 Terminology

1.5 Comparisons With Other Carbon-Based Nanomaterials

1.5.1 Graphene Oxide

1.5.2 Reduced Graphene Oxide

1.5.3 Exfoliated Graphene

1.6 Beyond Graphene

1.6.1 Boron Nitride

1.6.2 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides

1.6.3 MXenes

1.6.4 Phosphorene

1.7 Future Advances and Challenges

References

2 Synthetic routes to graphene preparation from the perspectives of possible biological applications

2.1 Summary

2.2 Introduction

2.3 Bottom-Up Approaches

2.3.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition Method

2.3.2 Chemical Synthesis Method

2.4 Top-Down Approaches

2.4.1 Mechanical Peeling

2.4.2 Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Graphene

2.4.2.1 Ultrasonication

2.4.2.2 Ball milling

2.4.2.3 Electrochemical exfoliation

2.4.2.4 Shear exfoliation

2.4.2.5 Comparison of common exfoliation methods

2.4.3 Exfoliating Agents

2.4.3.1 Nonbiological exfoliating agents

2.4.3.1.1 Organic solvents as exfoliating agents

2.4.3.1.2 Surfactants as exfoliating agents

2.4.3.2 Biological exfoliating agents

2.5 Conclusions

References

3 Characterization techniques for graphene

3.1 Summary

3.2 Introduction

3.3 Spectroscopic Methods

3.3.1 Absorption/Extinction Spectroscopy

3.3.2 Raman Spectroscopy

3.3.3 IR Spectroscopy

3.3.4 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

3.3.5 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

3.3.6 Zeta Potential Measurements

3.3.7 Surface Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy

3.4 Microscopy Methods

3.4.1 SEM and TEM

3.4.2 Atomic Force Microscopy/Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

3.4.3 Fluorescence Quenching Microscopy

3.5 Conclusions

References

4 Inorganic analogues of graphene: synthesis, characterization, and applications

4.1 Summary

4.2 Introduction

4.3 Hexagonal Boron Nitride

4.3.1 Production

4.3.2 Characterization Techniques

4.3.3 Applications of h-BN

4.4 Transition Metal Dichalcogenides

4.4.1 Exfoliation

4.4.2 Characterization Techniques

4.4.3 Applications

4.5 MXenes

4.5.1 Production

4.5.2 Characterization Techniques

4.5.3 Applications

4.6 Monoatomic Layers

4.6.1 Synthesis or Exfoliation

4.6.2 Characterization

4.6.3 Applications

4.7 Conclusions

References

5 Graphene composites with inorganic 2-D materials

5.1 Summary

5.2 Introduction

5.3 Graphene Composites With h-BN

5.3.1 Design and Preparations

5.3.2 Characterization

5.3.3 Properties and Applications

5.4 Graphene Composites With MoS2

5.4.1 Design and Preparation

5.4.2 Characterization

5.4.3 Properties and Applications

5.5 Composites With Other Inorganic Layered Materials

5.5.1 Composites With TMDs

5.5.2 Nongraphene Heterostructures

5.6 Conclusions

References

6 Graphene hybrids with carbon allotropes

6.1 Summary

6.2 Introduction

6.3 Graphene/CNT Hybrids

6.3.1 Covalent CNT/Graphene Hybrids

6.3.2 Noncovalent CNT/Graphene Hybrids

6.4 Graphene/Fullerene Hybrids

6.5 Organic Chemistry of Graphene

6.6 Conclusions

References

7 Graphene composites with synthetic polymers

7.1 Summary

7.2 Introduction

7.3 In situ Synthesis of Graphene/Polymer Composites

7.3.1 Design and Preparation

7.3.2 Characterization

7.3.3 Properties and Applications

7.4 Post-modification Approaches

7.4.1 Design and Preparation

7.4.2 Characterization

7.4.3 Properties and Applications

7.5 Conclusions

References

8 Graphene composites with proteins and biologics

8.1 Summary

8.2 Introduction

8.3 Design and Preparation of Graphene Biohybrids

8.3.1 Covalent and Noncovalent Approaches

8.4 Characterization of Composites

8.4.1 Equilibrium Binding Studies

8.4.2 Fluorescence Spectroscopy

8.4.3 Zeta Potential Studies

8.4.4 Atomic Force Microscopy

8.4.5 X-Ray Diffraction

8.4.6 CD Spectroscopy

8.4.7 Biological Activity Studies

8.5 Biocatalysis Using Graphene Platform

8.5.1 Preservation of Structure and Function of Bound Enzymes

8.5.2 Thermodynamic Stabilities of Enzymes

8.5.3 Kinetic Stability of Enzymes

8.6 Biosensing

8.6.1 Fluorescence-Based Graphene Biosensors

8.6.2 Electrochemical Graphene Sensors

8.7 Drug Delivery Applications

8.8 Conclusions

References

9 Nanotoxicity of graphene

9.1 Summary

9.2 Introduction

9.3 Challenges in Experimental Design of Nanotoxicity Assays

9.4 Methods for Nanotoxicity Assessments

9.5 In Vitro Toxicity of Graphene

9.6 In Vivo Toxicity of Graphene

9.7 Conclusions

References

10 Future of graphene revolution and roadmap

10.1 Summary

10.2 Introduction

10.3 Graphene Manufacturing: A Critical Assessment

10.4 Health and Environmental Risk Assessment of Graphene

10.5 Graphene: Fundamental Education and Society

10.6 Conclusions

References

Index

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