Chapter
1.5.2 Effects of NPs on Plants
1.5.3 Effects of NPs on Humans
1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE OF NPS
1.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE
2 - Plant-Based Synthesis of Nanoparticles and Their Impact
2.2 PLANT-MEDIATED SYNTHESIS OF SILVER NANOPARTICLES
2.3 GOLD NANOPARTICLE SYNTHESIS USING PLANTS
2.4 PLANT-ASSISTED SYNTHESIS OF ZINC OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
2.5 OTHER NANOPARTICLES SYNTHESIZED USING PLANT SOURCES
2.6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
3 - Potential of Spectroscopic Techniques in the Characterization of “Green Nanomaterials”
3.2 OVERVIEW OF METHODS FOR SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES
3.3 SOURCE FOR GREEN SYNTHESIS OF NANOMATERIALS
3.3.1 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Plants
3.3.2 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Algae
3.3.3 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Fungi
3.3.4 Synthesis of Nanomaterial From Bacteria
3.4 FACTORS GOVERNING SYNTHESIS OF GREEN NANOPARTICLES AND THEIR ANALYSIS
3.4.1 Technique for Particle Synthesis
3.4.2 pH Effect on Aggregation of Nanoparticles
3.4.6 Particle Size Distribution/Surface Area
3.4.7 Particle Proximity Effect
3.5 OVERVIEW OF SPECTROSCOPIC TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE TO NANOPARTICLE ANALYSIS
3.5.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
3.5.6 Visible (UV-Vis) Spectroscopy
3.5.7 Dynamic Light Scattering
4 - DNA in Nanotechnology: Approaches and Developments
4.2 SYNTHESIS OF DNA NANOSTRUCTURES
4.4 CORRECTION OF SEQUENCE MISMATCH
4.5 DNA NANOSTRUCTURES IN BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS
4.6 DRUG DELIVERY APPLICATIONS
4.7 DNA NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CANCER
4.8 ROLE IN SOLVING MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS
4.10 TECHNICAL CHALLENGES
4.11 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
5 - Plant Response to Engineered Nanoparticles
5.2 SIZE IS NOT THE ONLY CRITERION
5.3 METHOD OF APPLICATION AND ENTRY OF NANOPARTICLES INTO PLANTS
5.4 BIOTRANSFORMATION OF NANOPARTICLES IN PLANTS
5.5 EFFECTS OF NANOPARTICLES
5.5.1 On Legume–Rhizobium Symbiosis
5.5.4 On Different Enzymes
5.6 EFFECT ON ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC STRESS
5.7 EFFECTS OF CARBON-BASED NANOMATERIALS
5.9 PRACTICAL POSSIBILITIES AND THE WAY FORWARD
6 - Nanoparticle-Induced Morphological Responses of Roots and Shoots of Plants
6.1.1 Functions of Roots and Shoots
6.1.2 Environmental Conditions Alter the Model of Biomass Allocation Between Shoots and Roots
6.2 EFFECTS OF DIVERSE NANOPARTICLES ON GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PLANTS
6.2.1 Rare Earth Oxide Nanoparticles
6.2.2 Nanoparticles of Silicon Dioxide
6.2.3 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles
6.2.4 Manganese Oxide Nanoparticles
6.2.5 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
6.2.8 Silver Nanoparticles
6.2.10 Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
6.2.11 Copper Nanoparticles
7 - Recent Progress of Nanotoxicology in Plants
7.2 ROLE OF NANOPARTICLES IN AGRICULTURE
7.3 TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF TOXIC NANOPARTICLES
7.3.1 Carbon-Based Nanoparticles
7.3.2 Metal and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
7.3.3 Rare Earth Oxide Nanoparticles
7.3.4 Quantum Dots (Artificial Atoms)
7.4 FACTORS AFFECTING PHYTOTOXICITY OF NANOPARTICLES
7.4.1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Nanoparticles
7.4.1.1 Size and Surface Properties
7.4.1.3 Concentration of Nanoparticles
7.4.2 Effect of Soil-Type and Environmental Factors
7.5 PHYTOTOXIC EFFECTS OF NANOPARTICLES
7.5.1 Reduced Seed Germination
7.5.2 Effect on Morphology and Plant Growth
7.5.3 Effect on Quality and Grain Yield
7.6 PHYTOTOXIC MECHANISM OF NANOPARTICLES
7.6.1 Uptake, Accumulation, and Translocation of Nanoparticles in Plants
7.6.1.1 Pathways of Internalization of Nanoparticles
7.6.1.2 Foliar Application
7.6.1.3 Factors Affecting Uptake
7.6.2 Alteration of Mineral Absorption and Assimilation and Biotransformation of Nanoparticles in Plant Cells
7.6.2.1 Alteration in Mineral Uptake and Assimilation
7.6.2.2 Biotransformation of Nanoparticles
7.6.3 Genotoxicity of Nanoparticles
7.6.3.1 Aluminum Oxide Nanoparticles
7.6.3.2 Copper Nanoparticles
7.6.3.3 Other Nanoparticles
7.6.4 Increase in Reactive Oxygen Species
7.6.4.2 Interaction of Reactive Oxygen Species with Nanoparticles
7.6.4.3 Effect of Reactive Oxygen Species
7.6.5 Reduction in Antioxidative Enzymes
7.7 DETOXIFICATION OF NANOPARTICLES IN PLANTS
7.7.1 Antioxidant Defense Mechanism
7.7.2 Root Exudate Detoxification of Nanoparticles
7.7.2.3 Phenolic Compounds
8 - Exploring Plant-Mediated Copper, Iron, Titanium, and Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles and Their Impacts
8.2 PLANT-MEDIATED TITANIUM DIOXIDE NANOPARTICLES AND THEIR IMPACT ON PLANTS AND OTHER LIVING SYSTEMS
8.3 PLANT-MEDIATED IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES AND THEIR IMPACT ON PLANTS AND OTHER LIVING SYSTEMS
8.4 PLANT-MEDIATED CERIUM OXIDE NANOPARTICLES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON PLANTS AND OTHER LIVING SYSTEMS
8.5 EXPLORING PLANT-MEDIATED COPPER NANOPARTICLES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON PLANTS AND OTHER LIVING SYSTEMS
8.6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
9 - Gold Nanomaterials to Plants: Impact of Bioavailability, Particle Size, and Surface Coating
9.1.1 Gold Nanomaterials: Types and Properties
9.1.2 Gold Nanostructures: Applications in Plants
9.2 UPTAKE AND TRANSLOCATION OF NANOSTRUCTURES IN PLANTS
9.2.1 Bioavailability and Uptake
9.2.1.2 Through Foliar Uptake
9.2.1.3 Through Endocytosis
9.2.2 Transmission and Translocation
9.3 EFFECT OF GOLD NANOSTRUCTURES ON PLANTS
9.3.1 Impact of Surface Coating
9.4 TOXICITY ASSESSMENT OF GOLD NANOMATERIALS ON PLANTS
9.5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
10 - Responses of Plants to Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
10.2 COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
10.3 SYNTHESIS OF IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
10.3.1 Surface Modifications With Organic and Inorganic Materials
10.3.2 Biosynthesis of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
10.3.3 Emulsification of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
10.4 APPLICATION METHODS OF IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
10.5 UPTAKE, ABSORBANCE, TRANSFER, AND ACCUMULATION MECHANISM OF IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
10.6 IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES AND PLANT GROWTH
10.6.1 Privileged Growth and Yield of Plants
10.6.2 Improvement in Physiological Mechanism of Plants
10.6.3 Tolerance Against Abiotic Stresses
10.6.3.3 Temperature Stress
10.6.4 Endorsement of Agronomic Traits
10.6.5 Substitutes of Typical Fertilizers
10.6.6 Environmental Impacts
10.7 CONTROVERSIES ABOUT THE PHYTOTOXICITY OF IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
11 - Effects of Rare Earth Oxide Nanoparticles on Plants
11.2 GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE AND SOURCES OF REONPS
11.2.2.2 Anthropogenic Sources
11.3 CHARACTERIZATION, TYPES, AND SYNTHESIS OF REONPS
11.3.1 Characterization of REONPs
11.3.3 Methods to Prepare REONPs
11.4 APPLICATION OF REONPS IN SOIL
11.4.1 Solubility of REONPs in Soil
11.4.2 Interaction of REONPs With Inorganic Components of Soil
11.4.3 Effect of REONPs on Soil Microorganisms
11.4.4 Interaction With Other Mineral Elements
11.5 DYNAMICS OF REONPS IN SOILS AND PLANTS
11.5.2 Transport of REONPs in Plant Parts
11.5.2.1 REONPs–Plant Root Interaction and Its Regulation
11.5.2.2 Processes at Root Level
11.5.2.3 Processes at Cellular Level
11.5.2.4 Transport of Root REONPs to Leaves and Edible Plant Parts
11.5.3 Accumulation of REONPs in Plant Organs
11.6 EFFECT OF REONPS ON PLANT GROWTH
11.6.1 Effect on Seed Germination
11.6.2 Enhanced Mineral Nutrient Availability in Soil to Plants
11.6.3 Effect of REONPs on Root Growth and Development
11.6.4 Impact of REONPs on Physiological and Biochemical Parameters of Plants
11.6.4.1 Effect on Photosynthesis
11.6.4.2 Oxidative Activity
11.6.4.3 Effect of Enzyme Activity
11.6.4.4 Chlorophyll Contents
11.6.5 Impact of REONPs on Plant Productivity
11.6.6 Seed Quality Enhancement
11.7 CONTROVERSIES ABOUT THE USE OF REONPS
11.7.1 Health Issues Related to the Use of REONPs
11.7.3 Effects on Intestines
11.7.4 Effects on the Central Nervous System
11.7.5 Agricultural Issues Related to the Use of REONPs
11.7.6 Environmental Issues Related to the Use of REONPs
11.7.7 Socioeconomic Issues Related to the Use of REONPs
11.8.1 Prospects of REONPs in Food and Agriculture
11.8.2 Wastewater Treatment
11.8.3 Potential for Cancer and Other Diseases
12 - Influence of Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles (nTiO2) on Crop Plants: A Systematic Overview
12.2 INFLUENCE OF NTIO2 ON PLANT GROWTH
12.2.1 Germination and Root Elongation
12.2.3 Life Cycle Studies
13 - Interaction of Copper Oxide Nanoparticles With Plants: Uptake, Accumulation, and Toxicity
13.2 UPTAKE TRANSLOCATION AND ACCUMULATION
13.3 EFFECT OF CUO NPS ON PLANTS
13.5 TOLERANCE MECHANISM IN PLANTS
13.6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE REMARKS
14 - Impacts of Cerium Oxide Nanoparticles (nCeO2) on Crop Plants: A Concentric Overview
14.2 INFLUENCE OF NCEO2 ON PLANT GROWTH
14.2.1 Effect on Germination and Root Elongation
14.2.2 Adult Plant Studies
14.2.3 Crop Yield Quality
14.2.4 Multigenerational Studies
15 - Plant and Nanoparticle Interface at the Molecular Level: An Integrated Overview
15.2 UPTAKE AND TRANSLOCATION OF NPS IN PLANTS
15.3 EFFECTS OF NANOPARTICLES ON PLANTS
15.4 MECHANISM OF PHYTOTOXICITY IN PLANTS GENERATED BY NPS
15.5 EFFECT OF NPS ON GENOMICS
15.6 EFFECT OF NPS ON TRANSCRIPTOMICS
15.7 EFFECT OF NPS ON PROTEOMICS
15.8 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
16 - Nanotechnology in Crop Protection
16.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY AND PLANT GROWTH
16.3 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN CROP PROTECTION
16.3.1 Encapsulated Nanosystems for Crop Protection
16.3.1.2 Synthetic Polymer
16.3.1.3 Polymeric-Based Nanomaterials for Crop Protection
16.3.1.4 Lipid-Based Nanomaterials for Crop Protection
16.3.1.5 Inorganic Porous Nanomaterials for Crop Protection
16.3.1.6 Clay-Based Nanomaterials for Crop Protection
16.3.2 Nonencapsulated Nanopesticide for Crop Protection
16.3.2.1 Silver Nanoparticles
16.3.2.2 ZnO Nanoparticles
16.3.2.3 Silica Nanoparticles
16.3.2.4 Copper Nanoparticles
16.3.2.5 TiO2 Nanoparticles
16.3.2.6 MgO Nanoparticles
16.3.3 Other Nano-Based Systems for Crop Protection
16.3.4 Mode of Entry of Nanomaterials in Plants and Controlled Release of Agrochemicals
16.3.4.1 Ultrasound Responsive Polymers
16.3.4.2 Light Responsive Polymers
16.3.4.3 Redox/Thiol Responsive Polymers
16.3.4.4 Magnetic Field Responsive Polymers
16.3.4.5 Enzyme Responsive Polymers
16.3.4.6 Antigen–Antibody Responsive Polymers
16.3.4.7 Electric Field Responsive Polymers
16.3.4.8 pH and Temperature Responsive Polymers
16.4 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT
16.5 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN PLANT BREEDING AND GENETIC TRANSFORMATION
16.5.1 Liposome-Mediated Gene Transfer
16.5.2 Modified or Neoliposomal Technique
16.5.3 Nanoparticle-Mediated Gene Transfer
16.5.4 Carbon Nanotube-Mediated Gene Transfer
16.5.6 Other Novel Nanomaterial-Based Gene Transfer Processes
16.6 NANO-BASED DIAGNOSTIC SENSORS
16.7 LIMITATION OF NANOMATERIALS
17 - Impact of Nanoparticles on Oxidative Stress and Responsive Antioxidative Defense in Plants
17.2 NANOPARTICLE-INDUCED OXIDATIVE STRESS IN PLANTS: GENERATION OF ROS
17.3 OXIDATIVE DAMAGE CAUSED BY GENERATED ROS
17.4 ACTIVATION OF ANTIOXIDANT MACHINERY IN RESPONSE TO NANOPARTICLE EXPOSURE
17.5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE OUTLOOK
18 - Nanoparticles and Organic Matter: Process and Impact
18.2 PLANT COMPONENTS: NATURE AND USES
18.2.2 Proteins and Amino Acids
18.3 COMPLICATIONS IN ORGANIC MATTER CONVERSION
18.3.1 Structural Complexity
18.3.2 Crystallinity: Amorphous Modulation
18.3.4 Economic Implications
18.3.5 Water–Wastewater Prospects
18.3.6 By-Product Utilization
18.4 NANOMATERIALS: A NEW CANDIDATE IN ORGANIC MATTER CONVERSION
18.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF NANOMATERIALS
18.5.5 Surface Composition
18.6 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NANOCATALYSTS FOR BIOMASS CONVERSION
18.7 NANOPARTICLES: COMPONENTS DETERMINING THE FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES
18.7.3 Bifunctional Catalyst
18.7.5 Mixed Nanometal Oxides
18.7.6 Surface-Activated Metal Nanoparticles
18.8 NANOPARTICLES ON ORGANIC MATTER
18.8.1 Protein Extraction
18.8.2 Fractionation of Carbohydrates
18.8.3 Production of Value-Added Products From Carbohydrates
18.8.4 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Lignin
18.8.5 Extraction of Lipids
18.8.6 Transesterification of Lipids
18.9 FURTHER PERSPECTIVES AND CONCLUSIONS
19 - Ecological Risks of Nanoparticles: Effect on Soil Microorganisms
19.2 EFFECT OF NANOPARTICLES ON MICROORGANISMS
19.3 PHYSICAL BASIS OF TOXICITY
19.3.1 Size of the Nanoparticle
19.3.2 Shape of the Nanoparticle
19.3.2.1 Composition of the Nanoparticle
19.4 BIOCHEMICAL MECHANISMS OF NANOPARTICLE-INDUCED TOXICITY
19.4.1 Release of Toxic Metal Ions and Subsequent Interaction
19.4.2 Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Depletion
19.4.3 Enzyme Activity Interference
19.4.4 Impairment of Membrane Function
19.4.5 Interference With Nutrient Assimilation
19.4.6 Genotoxicity or DNA Damage
19.4.7 Reactive Oxygen Species Generation
19.4.8 Interactions With Proteins
19.4.9 Lipid Peroxidation
19.5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
20 - Application of Nanotechnology to Enhance the Nutrient Quality of Food Crops and Agricultural Production
20.2 NANOBIOTECHNOLOGICAL MATERIALS AND THEIR SYNTHESIS
20.3 APPLICATION OF NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY AT THE PRODUCTION SITE (AGRICULTURAL SECTOR)
20.3.1 Maintenance of Plant and Other Food Crops
20.3.2 Protection From Pathogens
20.3.3 As a Nanonutrient to Maintain Nutrient Quality of Food Crops
20.3.4 As a Nanofertilizer
20.4 APPLICATIONS OF NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY AT THE MARKETING SITE (FOOD SECTOR)
20.4.4 For Food Packaging
21 - Potential Applications and Avenues of Nanotechnology in Sustainable Agriculture
21.1.1 Global Applications of Nanomaterials
21.2 NANOTECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF CROPS
21.2.3 Nano-Based Smart Delivery Systems: Nanoscale Carriers and Nanofertilizers
21.2.3.1 Nitrogen Fertilizers
21.2.3.2 Potash Fertilizers
21.2.3.3 Nanoporous Zeolite
21.2.3.4 Zinc Nanofertilizer
21.2.5 Nanofiltration in Agriculture
21.3 NANOTECHNOLOGY IN PLANT NUTRITION AND HEALTH
21.3.1 Nanoparticles in Plant Growth Enhancement
21.3.1.1 Nanoparticles as Growth Promoter
21.3.1.2 Nanoparticles in Disease Suppression
21.4 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
22 - Nanoencapsulation of Essential Oils: A Possible Way for an Eco-Friendly Strategy to Control Postharvest Spoilage of Food Commodities From Pests
22.2 TECHNIQUES FOR ESSENTIAL OIL ENCAPSULATION
22.2.1 Spray-Drying Method
22.2.2 Spray Cooling/Chilling Method
22.2.3 Liposomal Preparation
22.2.4 Coacervation/Phase Separation
22.2.5 Molecular Inclusion
22.2.9 Supercritical Fluid Technique
22.3 CARRIERS/WALL MATERIALS FOR ENCAPSULATION
22.3.1 Carbohydrate Based Materials
22.3.1.1 Starch and Starch-Based Materials
22.3.1.2 Cellulose and Its Derivatives
22.3.1.4 Animal Polysaccharides
22.3.2 Protein-Based Materials
22.3.3 Lipid-Based Materials
22.4 CHARACTERIZATION OF MICRO-/NANOCAPSULES
22.4.1 Total and Surface Oil Determination (Encapsulation Efficiency)
22.4.2 Surface Characterization
22.4.3 Analysis of EO Composition Before and After Encapsulation
22.4.4 Release of Volatiles
22.4.5 Evaluation of Storage Stability
22.5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE PROSPECTS
Nanomaterials in Plants, Algae, and Microorganisms
：Concepts and Controversies: Volume 1
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