Chapter
Introduction to vortex drag
2.3 Effects of Reynolds number on )3
Justification for neglect of effects
2.4 Effects of Mach number on /?
Range of Mach number for which effects can be neglected
2.5 Introduction to climbing performance
Derivation of angle of climb from thrust and drag
The speed Vec for maximum angle of climb
2.6 Upper limits of height
Limitations imposed by maximum usable lift coefficient
Practicable upper limits of height
2.7 Further discussion of the speed Vec
Speed stability and instability
Datum drag and lift-dependent drag
3.2 Equations representing the drag polar
The simple parabolic drag law
3.2.1 Alternative parabolic expressions
3.3 Equations based on the simple parabolic drag law
Equations for minimum )3 and the speed Vc* at which this is obtained
The speed ratio v = VJVC*
The ratio )S/)Sm in terms of v
Example 3.1. Rate of climb
3.4 Power required to overcome drag
Speed for minimum drag power
Example 3.2. Minimum drag power
4.1 The approximation cos y = 1
Errors in angle and rate of climb due to assuming that cos y = l
Example 4.1. Effects of assuming that cos 7 = 1
4.2 Climb of aircraft with thrust independent of speed
Speed for maximum rate of climb
Example 4.2. Maximum rate of climb
4.3 Climb of aircraft with thrust power independent of speed
Speed for maximum rate of climb
4.4 Climb of aircraft with thrust power increasing with speed
Speed for maximum rate of climb
Acceleration factor for correcting rate of climb
Climb at constant EAS or Mach number
Example 4.3. Effect of acceleration on climb performance
Speed for maximum rate of climb, with acceleration
4.7 Climb performance in terms of energy height
Gain of energy height in minimum time, or with minimum use of fuel
4.8 Maximum angle of climb
4.9 Rate of climb in a non-standard atmosphere
5.1 Efficiency of thrust generation
Principle of operation of an air-breathing power plant
Ideal power, propulsive efficiency
Specific fuel consumption
5.2 Turbojet and turbofan engines
By-pass flow and by-pass ratio
Gain of efficiency and noise reduction due to by-pass
5.2.1 Non-dimensional relations
Typical plots of engine characteristics
5.2.2 Maximum thrust of civil turbofans
Variation with speed during take-off
Power law for variation with speed in climb
Power law for effect of varying height
5.2.3 Fuel consumption of civil turbofans
Power law for variation of sfc with speed and height
Effect of thrust reduction below rated value
5.2.4 Military turbofans and propulsion for supersonic civil aircraft
Variation of thrust with speed and height
Variation of sfc with speed
Characteristics of the Olympus 593 turbojet in Concorde
Dimensionless coefficients
Disc loading and propulsive efficiency
Advantages of controllable pitch
Noise and loss of efficiency at high blade tip Mach numbers
Limitation of cruising speed
Shaft power and equivalent shaft power
Use of controllable pitch
5.4.1 Maximum shaft power Power law to represent increase of power with flight speed
Reduction of power with increasing height
Definition of sfc in terms of equivalent shaft power
Power law for variation of sfc with flight speed
Effect of power reduction below rated value
5.5 Propfans and other open-rotor power plants
Advantages of open rotors
Variation with speed during take-off
Power law for variation with speed in cruise or climb
Power law for effect of varying height
Power law for variation of sfc with speed
Effect of thrust reduction below rated value
Variation of power with height
5.7.1 Maximum thrust of turbo jets, turbofans and propfans
5.7.2 sfc of turbojets, turbofans and propfans
6 Take-off and landing performance
6.2 Drag of the undercarriage
6.3 Effects of ground proximity on lift and drag
Methods of calculation and survey of effects
6.4 Drag equations for take-off and landing
Values of Kx and K2 in simple parabolic drag law
6.5 Take-off procedure and reference speeds
Reference speeds and airworthiness requirements
Summary of required relations between reference speeds
6.6 The balanced field length and the take-off transition
Choice of action after engine failure
Take-off after an engine failure
6.7 The take-off ground run
Calculation of distance using mean acceleration
Integration of equation of motion
Optimum lift coefficient during ground run
Estimation of ground run when an engine fails
Example-6N. 1. Take-off ground run
6.8 Lift-off, transition and climb
Estimation of airborne part of take-off distance
Example 6.2. Airborne part of take-off distance
6.10 The landing approach
Difficulty of controlling the flare accurately
Estimation of airborne distance
6.12 The landing ground run
Estimation of braking distance
6.13 Discontinued approaches and baulked landings
6.14 The accelerate-stop distance and the balanced field length
6.15 Effects of varying air temperature and pressure
6.15.1 Engine characteristics
7 Fuel consumption, range and endurance
7.1 The phases of a flight
7.2 Fuel reserve and allowances
7.3 Work done for a specified range
7.4 Basic equations for cruise range
Example 7.1. Breguet range of turbofan aircraft
Equations for turboprop aircraft
7.5 Conditions for maximum cruise range - turbofans
7.5.1 Constant true air speed
Example 7.2. Effect of climb angle in cruise-climb
Effects of varying temperature with height
7.5.2 Constant Mach number
7.5.3 Thrust adjustments in a cruise-climb
7.5.4 Speed and height limited by available thrust
Alternative cruise procedures
7.6 Conditions for maximum range - propellers
7.7 Practical cruise procedures
Choice of Mach number and lift coefficient
Stepped cruise as alternative to cruise-climb
7.8 Calculation of cruise range
Example 7.3. Range of turbofan aircraft, with alternative cruise procedures
Example 7.4. Range of turboprop aircraft, with alternative cruise procedures
Example 7.5. Endurance of turbofan aircraft, with alternative flight procedures
Example 7.6. Endurance of turboprop aircraft, with alternative flight procedures
7.10 Effects of climb and descent
Lost range, lost time and lost fuel
7.11 Effects of engine failure
Reduction of height after engine failure
Example 7.7. Reduction of range of turbofan aircraft caused by engine failure
Variation of optimum flight speed with wind speed
7.13 Variation of payload with range
The payload-range diagram
8.1 Curved flight in a vertical plane
Relation between acceleration and load factor
8.2 Equations for a banked turn
8.3 Structural and human limitations on the load factor
8.4 Turning limitations due to stalling or buffeting
Maximum load factor and rate of turn
Example 8.1. Maximum load factor, limited by stalling or buffeting
8.5 Rate of climb in a banked turn
Reduction of specific excess power due to increased drag
Example 8.2. Deceleration in a turn due to thrust deficit
8.6 The thrust boundary for a banked turn at constant height
Thrust required for a turn without loss of height or speed
Example 8.3. Maximum values of angle of bank and rate of turn, for no loss of speed or height
9.1 Equations for steady flight
9.2 Optimum values of 0F for cruise and climb
9.3 Level flight at low speed
Equations for partially jet-borne flight
Optimum jet deflection angle and required thrust
Example 9.1. Thrust conditions required for specified reduction of minimum speed
9.4 Vertical take-off and landing
Calculation of take-off distance from a flat runway
9.6 The use of vectored thrust in a turn
Reduction of minimum radius of turn
Conditions for turn without loss of height or speed
9.7 Other uses of vectored thrust in combat
10 Transonic and supersonic flight
Validity of simple parabolic drag law, with coefficients dependent on Mach number
Shock-induced separation drag at transonic speeds
Drag and drag/lift ratio for a subsonic aircraft at cruising speeds
Drag and drag/lift ratio for supersonic aircraft
10.2 Range at high subsonic speeds
Conditions for maximum specific range
10.3 Climb and acceleration in supersonic flight
Example 10.1. Supersonic civil aircraft: maximum values of rate of climb and acceleration
Example 10.2. Supersonic combat aircraft: maximum values of rate of climb and acceleration
10.4 Range at supersonic speeds
Conditions for maximum range
Example 10.3. Range of supersonic civil aircraft
10.5 Turning in supersonic flight
Limitations imposed by maximum usable lift coefficient
Thrust required for turn without loss of height or speed
Example 10.4. Thrust required for turn of supersonic combat aircraft
2 The International Standard Atmosphere
Aircraft Performance
( Cambridge Aerospace Series )
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