POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES (PHAS): BIOSYNTHESIS, INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

POLYHYDROXYALKANOATES (PHAS): BIOSYNTHESIS, INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONS IN MEDICINE

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Contents

Preface

Section 1: General Introduction

Chapter 1: Overview of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

Abstract

References

Chapter 2: Commercial Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) [P(3HB)]

3. Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate-co-3-Hydroxyvalarate) [P(3HB-co-3HV)]

4. Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate-co-3-Hydroxyhexanoate) [P(3HB-co-3HHx)]

5. Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate-co-4-Hydroxybutyrate) [P(3HB-co-4HB)]

References

Chapter 3: Unusual Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Unsaturated PHAs

3. Aromatic PHAs

4. Halogenated PHAs

5. Epoxidized PHAs

6. PHAs Containing Ester Groups in the Side Chains

7. PHAs Containing Sulphur in the Backbone

References

Chapter 4: Detection, Quantification and Property Analysis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Staining Reactions for the Visualization of PHAs Granules

3. Sample Pretreatment for the Analysis of PHAs

4. Application of Chromatography and Related Techniques in the Analysis of PHAs

4.1. Gas Chromatography (GC) & GC-MS

4.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) & HPLC-MS

4.3. Mass Spectrometry (MS)

4.4. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)

4.5. Ion Exchange Chromatography (IEC)

5. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR)

6. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

7. Characterization of Thermal and Mechanical Properties of PHAs

Conclusion

References

Chapter 5: The Applications of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs)

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. PHAs as Polymeric Materials

2.1. Used in the House Wares Industry

2.2. Used as Packaging Materials

2.3. Physical Blend and Chemical Modification of PHAs

2.3.1. Physical Blend

2.3.2. Chemical Modification

2.4. Used in Medical Application

2.4.1. Tissue Engineering

2.4.2. Drug Delivery

2.4.3. Surgical Treatment

3. The Applications of Oligomer PHAs and

Monomer Derivates

3.1. Nutrient Substance

3.2. Therapeutic Uses

3.3. Development Regulation

3.4. Biofuels

4. The Application of PHA Synthesis Mechanism

4.1. Survival Ability

4.2. Produce Regulation

4.3. Plant Metabolism Research

5. The Applications of PHA Hydrophilic (Surface) Protein

5.1. Protein Purification

5.2. Bio-Surfactant

Conclusion

References

Chapter 6: Challenge and Future Outlook

Abstract

References

Section 2: Biosynthesis

Chapter 7: Biosynthesis Pathways of PHA

1Department of Comprehensive Sciences, Howard University,

Washington, DC, US

2Department of Chemistry, Howard University, Washington, DC, US

3Department of Biology, Howard University, Washington, DC, US

4NOAA Center for Atmospheric Sciences, Howard University, DC, US

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Metabolic Pathways Leading to the Biosynthesis of PHA

from Various Carbon Sources

3. Medium Chain Length-PHAs from Fatty Acids

4. Other Pathways

References

Chapter 8: The Role of GeneticEngineering in PHA Biosynthesis

1Department of Comprehensive Sciences, Howard University,

Washington, DC, US

2Department of Chemistry, Howard University, Washington, DC, US

3Department of Biology, Howard University, Washington, DC, US

4NOAA Center for Atmospheric Sciences, Howard University, DC, US

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Recombinant Natural PHA Producers

3. Recombinant E. coli as a PHA Producer

References

Chapter 9: Substrates for PHA Biosynthesis

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Conventional Substrates

3. Plant Oils (Jatropha curcas, Vernonia galamensis)

4. Activated Sludge/Mixed Cultures

5. Agro-Industrial Wastes

References

Chapter 10: Biosynthesis of PHA in Wildtype Bacteria

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Pseudomonas oleovorans

3. Ralstonia eutropha

4. Alcaligenes latus

5. Streptomyces spp.

References

Chapter 11: Biosynthesis of PHA in Higher Organisms

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Saccharomyces cerevisiae

3. Insects

4. Transgenic Plants as Potential Producers of PHA

4.1. Arabidopsis thaliana

4.2. Gossypium hirsutum (Cotton)

4.3. Zea mays (Corn)

4.4. Saccharum spp. (Sugarcane)

References

Chapter 12: Biosynthesis of Short-Chain-Length PHA by Halophiles

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Halophiles

3. PHA Production by Halophiles

3.1. PHA Production by Halophilic Archaea

3.2. PHA Production by Halophilic Bacteria

4. PHA Synthetic Enzymes and Pathways

4.1. PHA Synthetic Enzymes and Pathways in Haloarchaea

4.2. PHA Synthetic Enzymes and Pathways in Halophilic Bacteria

5. The Applications of scl-PHA from Halophiles in Medicine

References

Section 3: Industrial Production

Chapter 13: The Industrial Production of PHA

Abstract

Introduction

2. Industrial Production of scl PHA

2.1. PHB Production

2.2. PHBV Production

2.3. P3HB4HB Production

2.4. Industrial Production of scl-mcl PHA

3. Commercial Applications of PHA

Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 14: Extraction and Purification of Polyhydroxyalkanoates

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Solvent Extraction

2.1. Solvent Extraction of scl PHA

2.2. Solvent Extraction of mcl PHA/scl-mcl PHA

3. Digestion Methods

3.1. Chemical Digestion

3.2. Enzymatic Digestion

4. Mechanical Disruption

Other Extraction Methods

Conclusion and Outlook

References

Chapter 15: Industrial Production of PHA: Recent Breakthroughs and Remaining Bottlenecks

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Recent Breakthroughs

2.1. PHASCL

2.1.1. Productivity Enhancement

2.1.2. Biosynthetic Control of the Biopolymer Composition

2.1.3. Bioprocess Improvements

2.2. PHAMCL

2.2.1. Copolymers

2.2.2. Homopolymers

2.3. Rarer PHA

2.3.1. PHASCL-co-PHAMCL

2.3.2. P3HA-co-P4HA

2.3.3. PHA Bearing Heteroatoms

3. Remaining Bottlenecks

3.1. Processing and Technical Constraints

3.2. Cost and Technology Transfer

4. Outlook

References

Section 4: Applications in Medicine

Chapter 16: Biodegradation of PHA in Nature

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Environmental Degradability of PHA Materials

3. Intracellular Digestion

4. Extracellular (Enzyme) Degradation

References

Chapter 17: Chemical Modification of PHAs

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Functionalization of PHAs

2.1. Introduction of Hydroxyl Group

(a) Monohydroxylated PHAs Macromonomer

(b) Dihydroxylated PHAs Macromonomer

(c) Hydroxylation of Unsaturated PHAs

2.2. Introduction of Carboxylic Group

2.3. Introduction of Epoxy Group

2.4. Chlorination of PHAs

2.5. Functional Groups Introduced by Thermal Degradation of PHAs

3. Graft Copolymers of PHAs

3.1. PHAs Grafting Copolymers Prepared by “Grafting onto” Technique

3.2. PHAs Grafting Copolymers Prepared by “Grafting from” Technique

3.3. PHAs Grafting Copolymers Prepared by “Grafting Through” or Macromolecular Technique

4. Block Copolymers of PHAs

4.1. Copolymerization Based on Esterification Formation

4.2. Copolymerization Based on Urethane Formation

4.3. Copolymerization in Other Formations

Conclusion

References

Chapter 18: Polyhydroxyalkanoates and Their Potential in Controlled-Release Drug Delivery Systems: Biomedical Applications and Factors Affecting the Drug Release

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Controlled Release Mechanisms

2.1. Physical Mechanisms

2.2. Chemical Mechanisms

3. Factors Affecting the in Vitro Release Rates from

PHA-Based Formulations

3.1. Manufacturing Processes

3.3. Polymer Crystallinity

3.3. Blending of PHA with Other Polymers

3.4. Type of Active Agent/Drug Distribution in Polymer Matrix

3.5. Drug Loading Efficiency

3.6. PHA Coating

4. Biomedical Applications

4.1. PHA-Based Controlled Release Systems in Chemotherapy

4.2. Antibiotics Release from PHA-Based Systems

4.3. PHA in siRNA Delivery

Conclusion and Future Trends

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 19: PHA-Based Materials at Interfaces Control Biomimetic Crystallization of Bone Minerals

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Applications of PHAs – Selected Examples

3. Interfacial Behavior of PHAs: Controlling Polymer Interfaces

4. Interactions with Lipids: PHA-based Complex Materials

5. Mineralization of PHA-based Interfaces

6. Future Perspectives

References

Chapter 20: The Cytotoxicity of Polyhydroxyalkanoates As Biomedical Materials

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Relationship between Cytotoxicity and Biocompatibility

3. Cytotoxicity Testing System of Biomaterials

3.1. Cell Lines and Primary Cells for In Vitro Testing

3.2. In Vivo Testing

4. Cytotoxicity Evaluation

5. Cytotoxicity Induced by PHAs Physical Properties and Their Degradation Products

5.1. Cytotoxicity Based on PHAs Physical Properties

5.2. Cytotoxicity of PHAs’ Degradation Products

6. Surface Modification

6.1. Physical Modifications

6.2. Chemical Modifications

6.3. Biological Modifications

7. Potential Mechanism

Conclusion and outlook

References

Chapter 21: Biomedical Studies of PHAs Produced in the Institute of Biophysics SB RAS and Siberian Federal University (Krasnoyarsk, Russia)

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. A Study of Biological Compatibility of PHAs

3. PHA Potential for Enhancing Biocompatibility of Vascular Stents

4. The Use of PHAs to Enhance Biocompatibility of Mesh Implants

5. Fully Biodegradable Biliary PHA Stents

6. PHA Potential for Bone Tissue Repair

7. PHA Monofilament Sutures

8. PHAs as a Platform for Drug Delivery

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

Index