Contents

pp.：  5 – 10

Tables and Figures

pp.：  11 – 14

Part One Data and Theories, An Overview

pp.：  15 – 16

Chapter One Introduction

pp.：  17 – 34

1.1 Basic Notions and Goals

pp.：  17 – 19

1.2 Chapter 2: Vagueness, Gradability and Typicality: Two Sets of Facts

pp.：  20 – 20

1.3 Chapter 3: The Linguistic Perspective on Vagueness, Gradability and Typicality

pp.：  21 – 23

1.4 Chapter 4: The Psychological Perspective on Vagueness, Gradability and Typicality

pp.：  24 – 24

1.5 Part 2: The New Proposal

pp.：  25 – 34

1.5.1 Chapters 5–6: Partial Information about Graded Structures

pp.：  26 – 25

1.5.2 Chapter 7: A Typology of Predicates by the Type of Their Degree Function

pp.：  26 – 28

1.5.3 Chapter 8: The Connections between Vagueness and Gradability

pp.：  29 – 30

1.5.4 Chapter 9: Polarity Effects

pp.：  31 – 32

1.5.5 Chapter 10: Conclusions and Beyond

pp.：  33 – 34

Chapter Two The Linguistic and Psychological Perspectives

pp.：  35 – 78

2.1 The Linguistic Data

pp.：  35 – 51

2.1.1 Vagueness

pp.：  35 – 35

2.1.2 Gradability

pp.：  36 – 41

2.1.3 Positive versus Negative Predicates: Polarity Effects

pp.：  42 – 51

2.2 The Psychological Data

pp.：  52 – 75

2.2.1 Vagueness in Nouns

pp.：  52 – 52

2.2.2 Entity Orderings in Nouns

pp.：  53 – 55

2.2.3 Dimensions in Nouns

pp.：  56 – 60

2.2.4 Typicality and Denotation Membership

pp.：  61 – 64

2.2.5 Typicality and Learning

pp.：  65 – 68

2.2.6 The Productive Nature of Typicality Effects

pp.：  69 – 75

2.3 Intermediate Conclusions and One Last Piece of Data

pp.：  76 – 78

Chapter Three Overview of Linguistic Theories

pp.：  79 – 142

3.1 The Representation of Vagueness

pp.：  79 – 81

3.2 The Analysis of Gradability

pp.：  82 – 126

3.2.1 The Connection between Vagueness and Gradability

pp.：  82 – 92

3.2.2 The Nature of the Degrees: The Ordinal Scale versus Interval Scale Controversy

pp.：  93 – 101

3.2.3 Polarity

pp.：  102 – 126

3.3 Typicality in Linguistic Theories

pp.：  127 – 142

3.3.1 Background: Multi-Valued Semantics

pp.：  128 – 133

3.3.2 Supermodel Theory: Kamp and Partee (1995)

pp.：  134 – 136

3.3.3 Problems with Supermodel Theory

pp.：  137 – 142

Chapter Four An Overview of Psychological Theories

pp.：  143 – 182

4.1 Prototype Theory

pp.：  144 – 151

4.1.1 Dimension Sets, Mean Distance and Similarity

pp.：  144 – 145

4.1.2 Standard-Based Categorization

pp.：  146 – 147

4.1.3 Contrast-Based Categorization

pp.：  148 – 150

4.1.4 The Main Problem of Prototype Models: Linear Separability

pp.：  151 – 151

4.2 Exemplar Theory

pp.：  152 – 155

4.2.1 Exemplar-Based Similarity

pp.：  152 – 152

4.2.2 The Results of Exemplar Extension

pp.：  153 – 153

4.2.3 The Disadvantage of Eliminating Summary Representations

pp.：  154 – 154

4.2.4 Are Exemplar-Based and Prototype-Based Predictions Inconsistent?

pp.：  155 – 155

4.3 Objections to Truth Conditional Theories

pp.：  156 – 162

4.3.1 The Conjunction and Sub-Type Effects and Failures of Intersection Inferences

pp.：  157 – 158

4.3.2 A Composite-Prototype Representation

pp.：  159 – 160

4.3.3 Constituent-Based Predictions

pp.：  161 – 162

4.4 The Representation of Information about Prototypes

pp.：  163 – 175

4.4.1 The Probabilistic Criterion

pp.：  163 – 167

4.4.2 The Knowledge Criterion

pp.：  168 – 175

4.5 Apparent Dissociations between Judgments of Typicality and Membership Likelihood

pp.：  176 – 179

4.6 Conclusions

pp.：  180 – 182

Part Two A Comprehensive Semantic Analysis

pp.：  183 – 184

Chapter Five Information Structure with Degrees and Dimensions

pp.：  185 – 210

5.1 Modeling Partial Information about Degrees and Dimensions

pp.：  185 – 188

5.2 The Inhabitants of Vagueness Models: Representing Vagueness and Ignorance

pp.：  189 – 191

5.3 Numerical Degree Functions

pp.：  192 – 194

5.4 Negative Predicates: The Quantity Metaphor and Transformation Values

pp.：  195 – 199

5.5 Dimensions and Dimension Sets

pp.：  200 – 202

5.6 Nouns, Adjectives, and More

pp.：  203 – 206

5.7 The Degree Function of Multidimensional Adjectives

pp.：  207 – 210

Chapter Six Partial Information about Gradability and Typicality

pp.：  211 – 232

6.1 The Syntax of the Language

pp.：  211 – 211

6.2 Vagueness Models with Degree Functions

pp.：  212 – 232

6.2.1 A Degree Ontology: D and Df

pp.：  213 – 213

6.2.2 The Context Structure: C, ≤ , c0 , and T

pp.：  214 – 214

6.2.3 The Extension Assigning Function Extension

pp.：  215 – 215

6.2.4 The Set of Assignment Functions G

pp.：  216 – 215

6.2.5 Semantic Values Relative to a Context t in T and an Assignment g in G

pp.：  216 – 219

6.2.6 Supersemantic Values Relative to a Context c in C and an Assignment g in G

pp.：  220 – 225

6.2.7 The Additional Elements in the Interpretation of Predicates, I

pp.：  226 – 226

6.2.8 The Superelements of the Interpretation of Predicates, I, Relative to c and g

pp.：  227 – 232

Chapter Seven A Degree-Function Based Typology of Predicates

pp.：  233 – 304

7.1 Standard-Based Categorization

pp.：  233 – 234

7.2 Membership Standards as Domain-Based

pp.：  235 – 247

7.2.1 The Connections between Standards and Domains

pp.：  235 – 239

7.2.2 Domain-Dependent Standards of Absolute Predicates

pp.：  240 – 242

7.2.3 The Standards of Nominal Concepts

pp.：  243 – 247

7.3 Negative versus Positive Adjectives

pp.：  248 – 249

7.4 Nominal Concepts: A Prototype Theory

pp.：  250 – 260

7.4.1 Nominal Concepts Are Similarity-Based

pp.：  251 – 252

7.4.2 The Representation of Partial and Context-Dependent Information about Prototypes

pp.：  253 – 254

7.4.3 A Psychologically Realistic Representation of the Nominal Intension

pp.：  255 – 256

7.4.4 The Felicity of Nominal Concepts in Between-Predicate Comparisons

pp.：  257 – 258

7.4.5 The Dimension Reading of Typical

pp.：  259 – 260

7.5 Multidimensional Αdjectives and Distance Predicates

pp.：  261 – 300

7.5.1 Rules versus Similarity-Based Categorization Criteria

pp.：  261 – 262

7.5.2 The Interpretation of Distance Predicates

pp.：  263 – 269

7.5.3 The Differences between Nominal and Adjectival Concepts

pp.：  270 – 274

7.5.4 The Double Nature of Negative Antonymy

pp.：  275 – 275

7.5.5 Evidence from Еxception Phrases and Degree Modifiers

pp.：  276 – 284

7.5.6 Dimension Accessibility: The Licensing of with Respect to Phrases

pp.：  285 – 294

7.5.7 The Licensing of Comparative Morphemes

pp.：  295 – 298

7.5.8 Languages with a Closed Set of Adjectives (and Rule-Based Verbs)

pp.：  299 – 300

7.6 Intermediate Conclusions

pp.：  301 – 304

Chapter Eight The Learning Principle and Complex Concepts

pp.：  305 – 350

8.1 An Ordering Principle Based on Vagueness Resolution (Order of Learning)

pp.：  305 – 307

8.2 Typicality is Tightly Coupled with Learning Order

pp.：  308 – 308

8.3 Acquisition of Predicate Interpretation Based on Entities Acquired Early

pp.：  309 – 312

8.4 Classification of Typical Entities by Inference

pp.：  313 – 314

8.5 Familiarity Effects

pp.：  315 – 316

8.6 Typicality and Proper Names: First Impression Effects

pp.：  317 – 322

8.7 Complex Concepts

pp.：  323 – 338

8.7.1 Negated Predicates

pp.：  324 – 325

8.7.2 Conjunction Effects and Fallacies

pp.：  326 – 326

8.7.3 Emergent Dimensions and Inheritance Failures

pp.：  327 – 332

8.7.4 The Ordering in Conjunctive Predicates, Compositionality and Its Limits

pp.：  333 – 338

8.8 Intermediate Conclusions

pp.：  339 – 339

8.9 Exemplars, Κinds, Typicality, and Genericity: Suggestions for Future Research

pp.：  340 – 350

8.9.1 Exemplar Effects

pp.：  340 – 343

8.9.2 Typicality and Genericity

pp.：  344 – 350

Chapter Nine The Meaning and Distribution of Gradability Morphemes

pp.：  351 – 406

9.1 Dimensional Polarity

pp.：  351 – 354

9.2 A Typology of Predicates by Their Transformation Values and Additive Functions

pp.：  355 – 360

9.2.1 Ratio versus Interval Predicates

pp.：  355 – 357

9.2.2 Interval versus Оrdinal Predicates

pp.：  358 – 360

9.3 Unit Names and Numerical Degree Predicates

pp.：  361 – 380

9.3.1 An Analysis Based on Measurement Theory

pp.：  361 – 364

9.3.2 Direct Consequences: Unit Names and Numerical Degree Relations in Polar Antonyms

pp.：  365 – 370

9.3.3 Between-Predicate Comparisons in Predicates with Conventional Unit Names

pp.：  371 – 372

9.3.4 Celsius

pp.：  373 – 374

9.3.5 Predicates That Can Never Occur with Numerical Degree Predicates

pp.：  375 – 377

9.3.6 Numerical Degree Predicates in Argument Position

pp.：  378 – 379

9.3.7 Complex Νumerical Degree Relations

pp.：  380 – 380

9.4 Clausal Comparatives

pp.：  381 – 391

9.4.1 A Supremum Theory without Including a Supremum in the Interpretation of Predicates

pp.：  381 – 386

9.4.2 Clausal Comparisons with Negative Predicates

pp.：  387 – 389

9.4.3 Cross-Polar Аnomalies and Nomalies

pp.：  390 – 391

9.5 The Distribution of Difference and Ratio Modifiers

pp.：  392 – 406

9.5.1 The Distribution of Ratio Modifiers

pp.：  392 – 397

9.5.2 The Distribution of Difference Modifiers

pp.：  398 – 406

Chapter Ten General Conclusions

pp.：  407 – 422

10.1 Summary of Main Points

pp.：  407 – 408

10.2 This Model and Beyond

pp.：  409 – 422

10.2.1 Absolute Predicates—New Developments

pp.：  409 – 410

10.2.2 Ontological Primitives: Degrees or Entity Sets?

pp.：  411 – 413

10.2.3 Measurement Theory in Linguistics

pp.：  414 – 416

10.2.4 Learning Orders and Beyond: Tolerance Inferences and Semi-Orders

pp.：  417 – 422

Appendix

pp.：  423 – 426

1. Proofs of Compositionality of Sets of Necessary Conditions (cf., Chapter 7)

pp.：  423 – 424

2. Sample of Proofs of the Predictions of the Learning Principle (cf., Chapter 8, cf. (21))

pp.：  425 – 426

References

pp.：  427 – 440

Index

pp.：  441 – 446