Contents

pp.：  57 – 57

List of Maps

pp.：  58 – 58

Acknowledgements

pp.：  59 – 59

Abbreviations and Symbols

pp.：  60 – 60

Abbreviations of Sources

pp.：  61 – 61

Chapter One Introduction: The Kharia Language

pp.：  62 – 76

1.1 General Introduction

pp.：  63 – 63

1.2 Genetic Affiliations

pp.：  64 – 64

1.3 Previous Studies on the Kharia and What this Study Adds

pp.：  65 – 68

1.3.1 Previous works

pp.：  66 – 66

1.3.2 The present study

pp.：  67 – 67

1.3.3 Methodology

pp.：  68 – 68

1.4 Some Terminological Issues

pp.：  69 – 72

1.4.1 “Contentive morphemes and semantic bases” vs.“roots and stems”

pp.：  70 – 70

1.4.2 “Case- and TAM/PERSON-syntagmas” vs. “nouns, verbs and adjectives”

pp.：  71 – 71

1.4.3 “Marker of qualitative predication” vs. “copula”

pp.：  72 – 72

1.5 Kharia Orthography and the System of Transliteration Used Here

pp.：  73 – 75

1.5.1 The script

pp.：  74 – 74

1.5.2 The written word in Kharia

pp.：  75 – 75

1.6 The Structure of the Study

pp.：  76 – 76

Chapter Two Phonology

pp.：  77 – 87

2.1 Vowel Inventory

pp.：  78 – 80

2.1.1 Monophthongs

pp.：  79 – 79

2.1.2 Diphthongs

pp.：  80 – 80

2.2 Consonants

pp.：  81 – 83

2.2.1 Gemination

pp.：  82 – 82

2.2.2 Pre-glottalized stops

pp.：  83 – 83

2.3 Syllable Structure

pp.：  84 – 84

2.4 Morphophonology

pp.：  85 – 85

2.5 The Phonological Word

pp.：  86 – 86

2.6 Sentence Prosody

pp.：  87 – 87

Chapter Three Syntactic Atoms

pp.：  88 – 104

3.1 Clitics as "Phrasal Affixes"

pp.：  89 – 94

3.1.1 The pragmatic markers

pp.：  90 – 90

3.1.2 Case and number marking

pp.：  91 – 91

3.1.3 Markers for inalienable possession

pp.：  92 – 92

3.1.4 Markers for TAM and person / number / honorific status

pp.：  93 – 93

3.1.5 The perfect marker =siʔ(d) and the infinitive marker =na

pp.：  94 – 94

3.2 Clitics in Kharia—An Overview of their Characteristics

pp.：  95 – 103

3.2.1 Position with respect to host

pp.：  96 – 96

3.2.2 Segmental properties of clitics and their respective degree of cohesion

pp.：  97 – 99

3.2.2.1 Segmental properties

pp.：  98 – 98

3.2.2.2 Degree of cohesion with host

pp.：  99 – 99

3.2.3 Clitics as “reduced” phonological words

pp.：  100 – 100

3.2.4 The relative ordering of clitics

pp.：  101 – 101

3.2.5 The varying mobility of clitics

pp.：  102 – 102

3.2.6 Lexicalization

pp.：  103 – 103

3.3 Affixes

pp.：  104 – 104

Chapter Four Parts of Speech and the Lexicon

pp.：  105 – 123

4.1 Introduction and Methodology

pp.：  106 – 106

4.2 The "Precategoriality" of Simple Contentive Morphemes

pp.：  107 – 107

4.3 Derived Forms

pp.：  108 – 113

4.3.1 Bisyllabicity in Kharia

pp.：  109 – 109

4.3.2 Reduplication—The masdar

pp.：  110 – 110

4.3.3 The -NV- infix

pp.：  111 – 111

4.3.4 -NV- + Reduplication

pp.：  112 – 112

4.3.5 Derivation and parts of speech—A summary

pp.：  113 – 113

4.4 "NPs" as Verbs? Syntactic Categories, not Lexical Categories

pp.：  114 – 115

4.4.1 The question of acceptability

pp.：  115 – 115

4.5 Parts of Speech in Kharia: A Summary

pp.：  116 – 116

4.6 "Compounds" and "Noun Incorporation"

pp.：  117 – 122

4.6.1 Lexical juxtapositions as “compounds”

pp.：  118 – 118

4.6.2 Genuine compounds

pp.：  119 – 120

4.6.2.1 (Semi-)Productive compounding

pp.：  120 – 120

4.6.3 Pseudo-compounds and “noun incorporation”

pp.：  121 – 121

4.6.4 Semi-productive incorporation

pp.：  122 – 122

4.7 "Echo-words"

pp.：  123 – 123

Chapter Five The Case-syntagma ("NPs")

pp.：  124 – 141

5.1 General Introduction

pp.：  125 – 127

5.1.1 Gender / size and animacy as grammatical categories

pp.：  126 – 126

5.1.2 Definiteness and indefiniteness as grammatical categories

pp.：  127 – 127

5.2 Case

pp.：  128 – 128

5.3 Adpositions

pp.：  129 – 129

5.4 Number

pp.：  130 – 130

5.5 Inalienable Possession

pp.：  131 – 131

5.6 Proforms

pp.：  132 – 132

5.7 Interrogatives, Indefinities and Negative Indefinites

pp.：  133 – 133

5.8 Demonstratives

pp.：  134 – 134

5.9 Quantifiers and Classifiers

pp.：  135 – 137

5.9.1 Quantifiers

pp.：  136 – 136

5.9.2 Classifiers

pp.：  137 – 137

5.10 Modification

pp.：  138 – 141

5.10.1 Morphologically simple modification (“adjectives”)

pp.：  139 – 140

5.10.1.1 Comparatives, superlatives and equatives

pp.：  140 – 140

5.10.2 Clausal adjuncts (“adverbials”)

pp.：  141 – 141

Chapter Six The Tam/Person-syntagma ("Verbs")

pp.：  142 – 209

6.1 General Introduction

pp.：  143 – 143

6.2 Person / Number / Honorific Marking

pp.：  144 – 144

6.3 Types of Semantic Bases in the Tam/Person-syntagma

pp.：  145 – 153

6.3.1 Single contentive morpheme as the semantic base

pp.：  146 – 146

6.3.2 Tam/Person-syntagmas with multiple semantic sub-bases

pp.：  147 – 147

6.3.3 Other types of semantic bases

pp.：  148 – 148

6.3.4 Experiential predicates / “psyche verbs”

pp.：  149 – 152

6.3.4.1 Experiencer as subject

pp.：  150 – 150

6.3.4.2 Oblique-case experiencers

pp.：  151 – 151

6.3.4.3 Overview of experiential predicates

pp.：  152 – 152

6.3.5 Causative and reciprocal marking

pp.：  153 – 153

6.4 Tam / Basic Voice Marking

pp.：  154 – 166

6.4.1 The basic TAM categories

pp.：  155 – 161

6.4.1.1 Past and “Past II”

pp.：  156 – 156

6.4.1.2 Present general imperfective

pp.：  157 – 157

6.4.1.3 Present progressive

pp.：  158 – 158

6.4.1.4 Irrealis

pp.：  159 – 159

6.4.1.5 Perfect

pp.：  160 – 160

6.4.1.6 Optative

pp.：  161 – 161

6.4.2 Active and middle: Their functions and distribution

pp.：  162 – 166

6.4.2.1 General remarks

pp.：  163 – 163

6.4.2.2 Differential functions

pp.：  164 – 164

6.4.2.3 Inherent functions

pp.：  165 – 165

6.4.2.4 A semantic map of the middle voice in Kharia

pp.：  166 – 166

6.5 "v2s"—Markers of the Passive / Reflexive and Aktionsart

pp.：  167 – 184

6.5.1 Passive / Reflexive: ɖom

pp.：  168 – 168

6.5.2 “Durativity”—continuative kan, semel-iterative loʔ and iterative khor

pp.：  169 – 169

6.5.3 Anticipatory telic ɖoʔɖ and culminatory telic goʔɖ

pp.：  170 – 170

6.5.4 Totality may

pp.：  171 – 171

6.5.5 Ambulative san ‘while going’

pp.：  172 – 172

6.5.6 Suddenness bhaʔ, hambaʔ and dhaʔb

pp.：  173 – 173

6.5.7 Departive ʈu

pp.：  174 – 174

6.5.8 Conative dakha / lakha

pp.：  175 – 175

6.5.9 Excessive bay

pp.：  176 – 176

6.5.10 Autopoesis jom

pp.：  177 – 177

6.5.11 Benefactive kay

pp.：  178 – 178

6.5.12 Seldomly encountered V2s

pp.：  179 – 184

6.5.12.1 col ‘go’

pp.：  180 – 180

6.5.12.2 oʔj ‘take out’

pp.：  181 – 181

6.5.12.3 ol ‘take’

pp.：  182 – 182

6.5.12.4 pal ‘finish’

pp.：  183 – 183

6.5.12.5 saphay ‘clean’

pp.：  184 – 184

6.6 Partially Finite and Non-finite Forms

pp.：  185 – 192

6.6.1 Partially finite forms

pp.：  186 – 186

6.6.2 Non-finite forms

pp.：  187 – 192

6.6.2.1 The masdar

pp.：  188 – 188

6.6.2.2 Infinitives

pp.：  189 – 189

6.6.2.3 Sequential converbs (“conjunctive participles”)

pp.：  190 – 190

6.6.2.4 Imperfective converbs (“present participles”)

pp.：  191 – 191

6.6.2.5 Participles

pp.：  192 – 192

6.7 Negation

pp.：  193 – 197

6.7.1 The general negator um

pp.：  194 – 194

6.7.2 Modal negation with abu

pp.：  195 – 195

6.7.3 Emphatic negation with umboʔ

pp.：  196 – 196

6.7.4 Negation with na

pp.：  197 – 197

6.8 Periphrastic Tam/Person-syntagmas ("Verbs")

pp.：  198 – 208

6.8.1 “Aspectual” auxiliaries

pp.：  199 – 203

6.8.1.1 laʔ ‘imperfectivity’

pp.：  200 – 200

6.8.1.2 mãɽe/maɽe, suru ‘begin’

pp.：  201 – 201

6.8.1.3 melay ‘stop’

pp.：  202 – 202

6.8.1.4 col ‘go’

pp.：  203 – 203

6.8.2 Modality

pp.：  204 – 208

6.8.2.1 lam ‘look for; want’

pp.：  205 – 205

6.8.2.2 ter ‘give; allow’

pp.：  206 – 206

6.8.2.3 pal ‘can, be able’

pp.：  207 – 207

6.8.2.4 The qualitative predicative marker: Obligation and necessity

pp.：  208 – 208

6.9 Inference

pp.：  209 – 209

Chapter Seven Syntax

pp.：  210 – 248

7.1 Grammatical Relations

pp.：  211 – 214

7.1.1 Case-syntagmas and their status within the clause

pp.：  212 – 212

7.1.2 Subject

pp.：  213 – 213

7.1.3 Object types

pp.：  214 – 214

7.2 Interrogatives

pp.：  215 – 219

7.2.1 Polar questions

pp.：  216 – 216

7.2.2 Constituent (“wh-”) questions

pp.：  217 – 218

7.2.2.1 Multiple constituent questions

pp.：  218 – 218

7.2.3 Alternative questions

pp.：  219 – 219

7.3 Qualitative Predication—"Nominal" and "Copular" Sentences

pp.：  220 – 225

7.3.1 General introduction

pp.：  221 – 221

7.3.2 Does Kharia have a copula?

pp.：  222 – 222

7.3.3 Stative qualitative predication—the forms

pp.：  223 – 223

7.3.4 Dynamic qualitative predication

pp.：  224 – 224

7.3.5 “Zero copulas”?

pp.：  225 – 225

7.4 Clause Coordination

pp.：  226 – 226

7.5 Subordination

pp.：  227 – 237

7.5.1 “Adverbial” clauses

pp.：  228 – 234

7.5.1.1 Purpose clauses

pp.：  229 – 229

7.5.1.2 Causal / instrumental clauses

pp.：  230 – 230

7.5.1.3 Temporal clauses

pp.：  231 – 231

7.5.1.4 Conditionals and counterfactuals

pp.：  232 – 232

7.5.1.5 Concessives

pp.：  233 – 233

7.5.1.6 Depictives

pp.：  234 – 234

7.5.2 Complement clauses

pp.：  235 – 237

7.5.2.1 In subject function

pp.：  236 – 236

7.5.2.2 In object function

pp.：  237 – 237

7.6 "Relative Clauses"—Propositional Attribution

pp.：  238 – 243

7.6.1 Correlatives

pp.：  239 – 239

7.6.2 Prenominal constructions

pp.：  240 – 240

7.6.3 Circumnominal clauses

pp.：  241 – 241

7.6.4 Postnominals

pp.：  242 – 242

7.6.5 The scale of relativization

pp.：  243 – 243

7.7 Information Structure—Topic, Focus and Constituent Order

pp.：  244 – 248

7.7.1 Predicate focus or Topic-Comment

pp.：  245 – 245

7.7.2 Argument focus

pp.：  246 – 246

7.7.3 Sentence focus

pp.：  247 – 247

7.7.4 The pragmatic markers =ga, =ko and =jo

pp.：  248 – 248

Appendix Text: The Nine Totems

pp.：  249 – 249

Bibliography

pp.：  250 – 250

General Index

pp.：  251 – 251

Index of Authors

pp.：  252 – 498