Contents

About the Editor

The Contributors

Acknowledgements

General Introduction

Glossary of Terms

A Note on Transliteration

A Note on the Reports of the International Comision of Inquiry on Libya

Basic Facts about Libya

Chronology of Events

Part One The Libyan Conflict in Context: History of Repression and the Aftermath of Revolution

Introduction to Part One

Chapter One Historical Background

1. Introduction

2. Ancient Libya: 10th Century bce–642 ce

3. The Arab Domination Period: 642–1517 ce

4. The First Ottoman Domination and the Qaramanli Dynasty:1551–1835

5. The Second Ottoman Domination: 1835–1911

6. Italian Colonial Domination and the Shaping of the Libyan Nation: 1911–1943

6.1. Occupation and Resistance

6.2. WWII and the Western Desert Campaign

7. Independence and the Establishment of the Kingdom of Libya:1943–1969

7.1. Establishing Independence

7.2. The Early Independence Period

8. The Libyan Arab Republic and the Rise of Mu'ammar Qadhafi:1969–1977

8.1. The Free Unionist Officers Movement and the 1969 Coup

8.2. Qadhafi’s Popular Revolution

9. The Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriyya: 1977–2001

9.1. The 1977 Declaration of the Establishment of the Jamahiriyya

9.2. Exporting Revolution and Confrontation with the West

10. Libya and the West, A New Era of Economic, Diplomatic and Security Relations: 2001–2011

10.1. The Post-9/11 Global War on Terrorism

10.2. Economic Incentives

10.3. Military Relations and Weapons Procurement

10.4. Human Rights Considerations

11. Qadhafi: A History of Political Terror

11.1. The Legacy of Fear and Psycho-Social Trauma

11.2. Support for International Terrorism

12. Conclusion

Chapter Two The Evolution of the Armed Conflict: 2011–2012

1. Introduction

2. Military Forces and Organizational Structure

2.1. Background on the Libyan Military

2.2. The Qadhafi Forces

2.3. The Thuwar Forces

3. Stages of the Conflict

3.1. Military Analysis and Overview

3.2. The Protest Phase

3.3. The Armed Conflict

3.4. The Post-Qadhafi Period

4. Conclusion

Appendix: Glossary of the Weapons Used During the Conflict

Chapter Three The NATO Campaign: An Analysis of the 2011 Intervention

1. Introduction

2. Overview of the NATO Campaign

2.1. The U.S. Role in the NATO Operations

3. The Legal Framework for the Use of Force

4. The Security Council’s Practice under Chapter VI and the Use of Force

5. The Security Council and the Libyan Conflict

5.1. Compliance with the UN Charter and the Security Council Resolution Authorizing Use of Force

5.2. Jus in Bello and the Absolute Obligation to Comply with the Laws of War: The Rules of Distinction and Proportionality

6. NATO Airstrikes

6.1. Phases of Operations

6.2. A Survey of Incidents

7. Assessing NATO Operations

7.1. Direct Foreign Assistance for Opposition Forces

7.2. Military Targets and Civilian Casualties

8. Conclusion

Appendix – Letters From NATO’s Legal Adviser Regarding Controversial Strikes

Chapter Four Accountability Issues

1. Introduction

2. Applicable Law

2.1. Non-State Actors

3. Phases of the Conflict

3.1. Classification of Phases

3.2. Emergence of an Internal Conflict

3.3. Emergence of a Conflict of a Non-International Character

3.4. Coexistence of an International Armed Conflict

3.5. Post-Conflict

4. Violations

5. Other Legal Issues

5.1. Superior Responsibility for IHL and ICL Violations

5.2. The Contracting Scope of Vicarious Liability under International Criminal Law

6. The Peculiarities of Post-Conflict Justice in Libya

6.1. Legislative Measures

6.2. Post Conflict Justice before the International Criminal Court and National Courts

6.3. The Major Cases

6.4. Other Domestic Investigations and Proceedings

7. Conclusion

Chapter FiveThe Post-Conflict Period

1. Introduction

2. The Security Landscape in the Post-Qadhafi Era

2.1. Revolutionary Forces and the Interim-Government

2.2. Disarming and Disbanding Non-State Armed Actors

2.3. Detention Facilities

2.4. Continued Instability

3. The Proliferation of Weapons

4. The 11 September 2012 Attack in Benghazi

5. The Influence of Political Islam in Libya

6. The Political Landscape

6.1. The 2012 Elections

6.2. Election Results

6.3. Demands for Representation

6.4. Drafting the Constitution

7. Conclusion

Addendum as of September 15, 2013

Part Two Theaters of Military Operations

Introduction to Part Two

Chapter Six Benghazi

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Denial of Access to Medical Treatment

3.6. Freedom of Expression

3.7. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.8. Prohibited Weapons

3.9. Mercenaries

3.10. Targeting Specific Groups

3.11. Sexual Violence

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Seven Ajdabiya & Brega

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Freedom of Expression

3.6. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.7. Prohibited Weapons

3.8. Mercenaries

3.9. Sexual Violence

3.10. The Use of Children and their Treatment in Armed Conflict

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Eight Ra’s Lanuf & Bin Jawad

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.6. Mercenaries

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Nine Misrata

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Denial of Access to Medical Treatment

3.6. Freedom of Expression

3.7. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.8. Prohibited Weapons

3.9. Mercenaries

3.10. Targeting Specific Groups

3.11. Sexual Violence

3.12. The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Ten The Nafusa Mountains

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

2.1. Wazin

2.2. Nalut

2.3. Tiji and Badr

2.4. Zintan

2.5. Zawiyyat al-Bajul, Awaniyya and Shayga

2.6. Yafran

2.7. Al-Qala'

2.8. Qawalish

2.9. Kikla

2.10. Bir al-Ghanam

2.11. Al-Gharyan

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Denial of Access to Medical Treatment

3.6. Freedom of Expression

3.7. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.8. Prohibited Weapons

3.9. Targeting Specific Groups

3.10. Sexual Violence

3.11. The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Eleven Khums

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Unlawful Killing

3.2. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.3. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.4. Targeting Specific Groups

3.5. Prohibited Weapons

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Twelve Zawiyya

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Denial of Access to Medical Treatment

3.6. Freedom of Expression

3.7. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.8. Mercenaries

3.9. Targeting Specific Groups

3.10. Sexual Violence

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Thirteen Tripoli

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Denial of Access to Medical Treatment

3.6. Freedom of Expression

3.7. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.8. Mercenaries

3.9. Targeting Specific Groups

3.10. Sexual Violence

3.11. The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Fourteen Bani Walid

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Excessive Use of Force

3.2. Unlawful Killing

3.3. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.4. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.5. Denial of Access to Medical Treatment

3.6. Freedom of Expression

3.7. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Chapter Fifteen Sirte

1. Introduction

2. Summary of Events

3. Illustrations of the Violations

3.1. Unlawful Killing

3.2. Arbitrary Detentions and Enforced Disappearances

3.3. Torture and Other Forms of Ill-treatment

3.4. Attacks on Civilians, Civilian Objects, Protected Persons and Objects

3.5. Prohibited Weapons

3.6. Targeting Specific Groups

3.7. The Use of Children and Their Treatment in Armed Conflict

4. The Role of NATO

5. Conclusion

Table of Authorities

Books

Journal & Book Articles

NGO Reports and Statements

Periodical Articles

UN Documents

US Cables and Documents

NATO Documents

Court Cases

International Law Documents

Other

Index