Preface

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations

Introduction

1. Background

2. Delineation

3. Structure

PART I

Chapter 1. Setting: Notions, Issues & Policy History

1.1. Clarification of the constitutive elements

1.1.1. Digital media content

A. Introduction

B. Recent developments in the media environment

B.1. The emergence of new technologies

B.2. Digitisation

B.3. Convergence

B.4. Control revolution, social networking and user-generated content

C. Conclusion: digital media content

1.1.2. Minor

1.1.3. Harmful content

A. Social science: history and theories of media content and media effects

A.1. Social science and harmful media content

A.2. Media effects research

B. Why regulate harmful content?: the precautionary principle

C. Exploration of the concept 'harmful content'

C.1. Definitions of harmful content

C.2. Harmful content versus illegal content

C.3. Social science inspired concepts of harmful content

C.4. Varieties of risks and varieties of harmful content

D. Legal aspects and implications of harmful content

D.1. Lack of legal definitions

D.2. Harmful content and freedom of expression

E. Concluding remarks

1.2. Protecting minors against harmful digital media content: identifying the regulatory challenges

1.2.1. Introduction

A. Old versus new media

B. Statistics

C. Implications for policy and regulation?

1.2.2. Characteristics of the new information and communication networks

1.2.3. Obstacles to the use of traditional (content) regulation in the digital media environment

1.2.4. The United States legislative approach to protect minors on the Internet

1.2.5. The need for a broader regulatory framework

1.2.6. EU policy history: the protection of minors against harmful digital media content

A. Communication Illegal and Harmful Content on the Internet

B. Green Paper on the protection of minors and human dignity in audiovisual and information services

C. Council Resolution on illegal and harmful content on the Internet

D. Green Paper on the protection of minors and human dignity: Follow-up & Consultation

E. Recommendations on the protection of minors and human dignity

F. Successive Safer Internet programmes

G. Council of Europe: a variety of policy documents

H. Concluding remarks

1.3. Conclusion

Chapter 2. Alternative Regulatory Instruments

2.1. "Regulation"

2.1.1. Regulation: conceptual elements

2.1.2. Centred or 'command-and-control' regulation

A. Notion

B. Drawbacks

2.1.3. Away from pure command-and-control regulation

2.1.4. Interim conclusion

2.2. "Alternative regulation" in policy documents

2.2.1. General policy documents

A. International: OECD

A.1. Recommendation on improving the quality of government regulation

A.2. Report on regulatory reform

B. European Union

B.1. White Paper on European Governance

B.2. The Final Report of the Mandelkern Group on Better Regulation

B.3. Better Legislation Action Plan

B.4. Interinstitutional Agreement on Better Lawmaking

B.5. Other EU policy documents

B.6. Interim conclusion

2.2.2. Media policy documents

A. European Union

B. Council of Europe

C. Interim conclusion

2.3. Overview and analysis of different alternative regulatory instruments

2.3.1. Alternative regulatory instruments (ARIs)

2.3.2. Self-regulation

A. Concept

B. Self-regulation in the media sector: studies

C. Illustration: codes of conduct

D. Assets and drawbacks

E. Interim conclusion

2.3.3. Co-regulation

A. Concept

B. Co-regulation in the media sector: the HBI and EMR study

C. Illustrations

C.1. Netherlands

C.2. Germany

C.3. Australia

D. Assets and drawbacks

E. Interim conclusion

2.3.4. Self- and co-regulation: Interim conclusion

2.3.5. Regulatory tools: Technology

A. Technology: alternative regulatory instrument or regulatory tool?

B. Technology and the protection of minors

C. Illustrations

C.1. Filtering

C.2. Rating and labelling

C.3. Parental monitoring and notification software

C.4. Identification mechanisms

C.5. Domain names

D. Interim conclusion

2.3.6. Regulatory tools: Supporting mechanisms

2.4. Conclusion

PART II

Chapter 1. Legal Framework ('de lege lata')

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Human Rights – Children's rights

1.2.1. International

A. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child

B. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

1.2.2. Council of Europe

A. European Convention on the protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms

B. European Social Charter

C. Documents related to human rights and the information society

D. Documents related specifically to children's rights

1.2.3. European Union

A. EU Treaties

B. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

C. EU strategy on the rights of the child

1.2.4. Concluding remark

1.3. Human Rights: freedom of expression, privacy and procedural guarantees

1.3.1. Freedom of expression

A. Article 10 ECHR

B. Freedom of expression and the information society

C. Freedom of expression and children

D. Concluding remarks

1.3.2. Privacy

A. Privacy and children

B. Article 8 ECHR and the EU Privacy Directives

C. The right to anonymity

D. Concluding remark

1.3.3. Procedural guarantees

A. Article 6 ECHR

B. Article 13 ECHR

1.4. Content regulation

1.4.1. Introduction

1.4.2. Regulation of audiovisual content

A. Television without Frontiers Directive

B. Revision process: from Television without Frontiers to Audiovisual Media Services

C. Audiovisual Media Services Directive

D. Council of Europe Convention on Transfrontier Television

1.4.3. Regulation of information society services: e-Commerce Directive

1.4.4. Indirect content regulation: liability of intermediaries

A. Introduction

B. e-Commerce liability regime

C. Issues of concern

1.5. Internal market and competition

1.5.1. Internal market principles

1.5.2. Competition rules

1.6. General EU legislative principles and requirements

1.6.1. Proportionality

1.6.2. Subsidiarity

1.6.3. Article 288 para. 3 TFEU [ex 249 EC Treaty]

1.7. Conclusion

Chapter 2. Using ARIs to Protect Minors from Harmful Content: Compliance with the Legal Framework

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Evaluation of different alternative regulatory instruments: compliance with the legal framework

2.2.1. Human rights

A. Freedom of expression

A.1. General principle

A.2. Infringement by 'public authorities'

A.3. Freedom of expression and horizontal effect

A.4. Restrictions on freedom of expression and their justification

A.5. Freedom of expression and self-regulation

A.6. Freedom of expression and technology

A.7. Concluding remarks

B. Privacy

B.1. General principle

B.2. Privacy and alternative regulatory instruments

B.3. Privacy and technology

B.4. Concluding remarks

C. Right to a fair trial

C.1. General principle and delineation

C.2. Scope of application

C.3. The notion 'tribunal established by law'

C.4. Procedural guarantees

C.5. Concluding remark

D. Right to an effective remedy

D.1. General principle

D.2. Article 13 ECHR and alternative regulatory instruments

D.3. Horizontal effect of article 13 ECHR

D.4. Article 6 and article 13 ECHR

D.5. Concluding remarks

E. Interim conclusion: ARIs and fundamental rights

2.2.2. Internal market legislation

A. Free movement of goods

A.1. General principles

A.2. Conceptual elements

A.3. Member States, individuals and responsibility

A.4. Application of theory in practice: Dynamic Medien v. Avides Media

B. Free movement of services

B.1. General principles

B.2. Scope

B.3. Applicability to actions of private parties

B.4. Free movement of services and the media sector

C. Interim conclusion

2.2.3. Competition rules

A. Article 101 TFEU [ex 81 EC Treaty]

A.1. General principle

A.2. Undertaking

A.3. Agreements

A.4. Inapplicability of article 101 para. 1 TFEU [ex 81 EC Treaty]

A.5. Delegation to private bodies

B. Article 102 TFEU [ex 82 EC Treaty]

C. Article 106 TFEU [ex 86 EC Treaty]

D. Interim conclusion

2.2.4. Article 288 para. 3 TFEU [ex 249 EC Treaty]

A. General principle

B. Requirements

B.1. Content

B.2. Nature

B.3. Application and enforcement

B.4. Liability in case of inadequate implementation

C. Article 288 TFEU [ex 249 EC Treaty] and ARIs

D. Interim conclusion

2.3. Conclusion: ARIs and their compatibility with the European legal framework

Concluding Remarks and Recommendations for the Future

1. Retrospective of the research undertaken

2. Conclusions

3. Recommendations and indications for future research

A. Recommendations

B. Indications for future research

Bibliography

Index