Contents

pp.：  7 – 14

Acknowledgements

pp.：  15 – 16

Preface

pp.：  17 – 20

List of Maps, Figures and Tables

pp.：  21 – 24

Abbreviations and Symbols

pp.：  25 – 28

Chapter One The Andaman and the Great Andamanese

pp.：  29 – 64

Introduction

pp.：  29 – 28

1.1 Geography and Topography

pp.：  29 – 30

1.2 Population

pp.：  31 – 33

1.3 Present-Day Great Andaman and the Great Andamanese

pp.：  34 – 36

1.3.1 Great Andaman

pp.：  34 – 34

1.3.2 The Strait Island

pp.：  35 – 36

1.4 History of Language Studies

pp.：  37 – 41

1.4.1 Great Andamanese

pp.：  37 – 39

1.4.2 Study in Pre-Independent India

pp.：  40 – 41

1.4.3 Study in Post-Independent India

pp.：  42 – 41

1.5 Genealogical Classification

pp.：  42 – 43

1.6 Typological Differences

pp.：  44 – 43

1.7 The Last Decade

pp.：  44 – 45

1.8 A Sociolinguistic Sketch of the Great Andamanese

pp.：  46 – 56

1.8.1 Background of the Great Andamanese Speakers

pp.：  48 – 49

1.8.2 Language Competence

pp.：  50 – 51

1.8.3 Language Use

pp.：  52 – 54

1.8.4 A Complex Situation

pp.：  55 – 55

1.8.5 The Predicament

pp.：  56 – 56

1.9 The Great Andamanese Culture: Some Observations

pp.：  57 – 60

1.9.1 Naming a Person

pp.：  57 – 57

1.9.2 Naming Seasons: The Honey Calendar

pp.：  58 – 58

1.9.3 Measuring Тime in Great Andamanese

pp.：  59 – 60

1.9.3.1 Parameters of Temporal Categorisation

pp.：  59 – 58

1.9.3.2 Natural Τime Parameters

pp.：  59 – 59

1.9.3.3 Evolutionary Period (Mythological Time)

pp.：  60 – 59

1.9.3.4 Historical Parameters (Pre-and Post-British Era)

pp.：  60 – 59

1.9.3.5 Life Cycle (Age of a Person)

pp.：  60 – 60

1.10 The Beliefs of the Great Andamanese

pp.：  61 – 62

1.10.1 The Domain or Realm

pp.：  62 – 61

1.10.2 Major Life Forms and Ethno-Biological Classifications

pp.：  62 – 62

1.11 The Βiological Universe of the Great Andamanese

pp.：  63 – 63

1.12 The Present Study

pp.：  64 – 64

Chapter Two Phonetics and Phonology

pp.：  65 – 92

Introduction

pp.：  65 – 64

2.1 Vowels

pp.：  65 – 71

2.1.1 Phonemic Contrasts

pp.：  66 – 66

2.1.1.1 Front Vowels

pp.：  66 – 66

2.1.1.2 Back Vowels

pp.：  67 – 66

2.1.2 Length

pp.：  67 – 67

2.1.3 Phonotactics of Vowels

pp.：  68 – 68

2.1.4 Vowel Sequences/Clusters

pp.：  69 – 71

2.2 Semi-vowels/Glides

pp.：  72 – 73

2.3 Consonants

pp.：  74 – 83

2.3.1 Phonemic Contrasts: Minimal and Sub-Minimal Pairs for Consonants

pp.：  77 – 80

2.3.1.1 Nasals

pp.：  77 – 76

2.3.1.2 Oral Stops

pp.：  77 – 79

2.3.1.3 Fricatives

pp.：  80 – 79

2.3.1.4 Liquids

pp.：  80 – 80

2.3.2 Phonotactics of Consonants

pp.：  81 – 81

2.3.3 Medial Consonant Clusters

pp.：  82 – 83

2.3.4 Initial Consonant Clusters

pp.：  84 – 83

2.4 Syllables

pp.：  84 – 86

2.4.1 Possible Syllable Structures

pp.：  85 – 85

2.4.2 Constraints

pp.：  86 – 85

2.4.3 Length of a Word

pp.：  86 – 86

2.5 Morphophonemics

pp.：  87 – 89

2.5.1 Gemination

pp.：  87 – 86

2.5.2 Degemination and Compensatory Lengthening

pp.：  87 – 87

2.5.3 Homorganicity

pp.：  88 – 87

2.5.4 Insertion of a Consonant

pp.：  88 – 87

2.5.5 Vowel Harmony

pp.：  88 – 87

2.5.6 Vowel Lowering

pp.：  88 – 88

2.5.7 Vowel Deletion

pp.：  89 – 88

2.5.8 Syllable Attraction

pp.：  89 – 89

2.5.9 Metathesis

pp.：  90 – 89

2.6 Acoustic Study of Problematic Sounds

pp.：  90 – 92

Chapter Three Grammar Overview

pp.：  93 – 124

3.1 The Structure

pp.：  93 – 97

3.1.1 General

pp.：  93 – 92

3.1.2 Typological Background

pp.：  93 – 94

3.1.3 Core Arguments

pp.：  95 – 97

3.2 Ambivalence of Verbs, Adjectives and Nouns

pp.：  98 – 103

3.2.1 Noun Verb Ambivalence

pp.：  98 – 101

3.2.2 Adjectives as Verbs

pp.：  102 – 101

3.2.3 Adjectives as Αdverbs

pp.：  102 – 102

3.2.4 Other Unusual Features

pp.：  103 – 103

3.3 Inalienability (ina), Body Division Classes and Grammaticalisation

pp.：  104 – 108

3.3.1 Introduction

pp.：  104 – 104

3.3.2 Anthropocentrism

pp.：  105 – 105

3.3.3 The Semantics of Inalienability

pp.：  106 – 106

3.3.4 Linguistic Manifestations of ‘Inalienability’

pp.：  107 – 108

3.3.5 Body Class Μarkers and Οther Νouns

pp.：  109 – 108

3.4 The Semantic Role of Body Division Classes

pp.：  109 – 109

3.5 Inalienability and its Representation in Verbs

pp.：  110 – 111

3.6 Inalienability and its Representation in Modifiers

pp.：  112 – 112

3.7 Process of Grammaticalisation

pp.：  113 – 114

3.8 The Status of Inalienability Markers in the Grammar: Proclitics

pp.：  115 – 121

3.8.1 Arguments for Treating Inalienability Markers as Clitics

pp.：  115 – 117

3.8.2 Nature of Proclitics

pp.：  118 – 119

3.8.3 Clitic Sequencing

pp.：  120 – 121

3.9 Summary and Conclusions

pp.：  122 – 124

Chapter Four Word Formation Processes

pp.：  125 – 138

Introduction

pp.：  125 – 124

4.1 Affixation

pp.：  125 – 127

4.2 Attaching Clitics

pp.：  128 – 130

4.2.1 Proclitics

pp.：  128 – 129

4.2.2 Enclitics

pp.：  130 – 129

4.2.3 Object Clitics

pp.：  130 – 130

4.3 Combination of Affixation and Clitics

pp.：  131 – 131

4.4 Compounding

pp.：  132 – 138

4.4.1 Formation of Compounds

pp.：  132 – 138

4.4.1.1 Noun + Modifier

pp.：  133 – 132

4.4.1.2 Noun + Noun

pp.：  133 – 133

4.4.1.3 Noun + Verb or Verb + Noun

pp.：  134 – 134

4.4.1.4 Noun + Proclitic + Noun

pp.：  135 – 134

4.4.1.5 Noun + Proclitic + Verb/Modifier

pp.：  135 – 135

4.4.1.6 Combination of Proclitics, Affixes, and Compounds

pp.：  136 – 136

4.4.1.7 Antonyms

pp.：  137 – 136

4.4.1.8 Summary of Compounds

pp.：  137 – 138

Chapter Five Nouns and Noun Phrases

pp.：  139 – 164

Nouns

pp.：  139 – 139

5.1 Number and Gender

pp.：  140 – 143

5.1.1 Numerals

pp.：  142 – 142

5.1.2 Gender

pp.：  143 – 143

5.2 Case

pp.：  144 – 158

5.2.1 Arguments

pp.：  144 – 144

5.2.2 Case Markings

pp.：  145 – 158

5.2.2.1 Intransitive Subject Marking

pp.：  145 – 146

5.2.2.2 Transitive Subject Marking and Ergative/Agentive

pp.：  147 – 147

5.2.2.3 Object Marking

pp.：  148 – 149

5.2.2.4 Dative

pp.：  150 – 149

5.2.2.5 Instrumental

pp.：  150 – 151

5.2.2.6 Ablative

pp.：  152 – 152

5.2.2.7 Comitative

pp.：  153 – 153

5.2.2.8 Purposive/Benefactive

pp.：  154 – 153

5.2.2.9 Directional

pp.：  154 – 154

5.2.2.10 Locational

pp.：  155 – 157

5.2.2.11 Genitive

pp.：  158 – 158

5.2.2.12 Comparative

pp.：  159 – 158

5.3 Noun Phrases

pp.：  159 – 162

5.3.1 The General Structure

pp.：  159 – 161

5.3.1.1 Descriptive

pp.：  160 – 159

5.3.1.2 Possessive

pp.：  160 – 160

5.3.1.3 Appositional

pp.：  161 – 160

5.3.1.4 Quantifiers

pp.：  161 – 160

5.3.1.5 Relativisation

pp.：  161 – 161

5.3.2 Coordinated Noun Phrases

pp.：  162 – 162

5.4 Conclusion

pp.：  163 – 164

Chapter Six Possession

pp.：  165 – 196

Introduction

pp.：  165 – 164

6.1 Possessive Classification

pp.：  165 – 165

6.2 Primary Possession

pp.：  166 – 176

6.2.1 Body Part Terms

pp.：  167 – 175

6.2.1.1 Mouth Cavity (a=)

pp.：  168 – 168

6.2.1.2 Major External Body Parts (εr= ~ er=)

pp.：  169 – 169

6.2.1.3 Extremities of the Body (uŋ= ~ oŋ=)

pp.：  170 – 170

6.2.1.4 External Body Products or Extension (ɔt= ~ ut= ~ ot=)

pp.：  171 – 171

6.2.1.5 Internal organs (e= ~ i-)

pp.：  172 – 172

6.2.1.6 Nodular or Curved Structure (ara=, ra=)

pp.：  173 – 173

6.2.1.7 Lower Parts of Body (o= ~ ɔ=)

pp.：  174 – 175

6.2.2 Is There a Hierarchy?

pp.：  176 – 176

6.3 Kinship Terms

pp.：  177 – 177

6.3.1 Parallels Between the Body Part Terminology and Kinship Terms

pp.：  178 – 177

6.4 The Twin Levels

pp.：  178 – 178

6.5 Secondary Possession

pp.：  179 – 183

6.5.1 Juxtaposition/Compounds

pp.：  179 – 179

6.5.2 Complex Structures

pp.：  180 – 183

6.5.2.1 Lexical Compounding with Class Markers

pp.：  180 – 180

6.5.2.2 Double Marking and Clitic Sequencing

pp.：  181 – 180

6.5.2.3 Adverbial Function

pp.：  181 – 182

6.5.2.4 Double Class Markers

pp.：  183 – 183

6.5.2.5 Summary

pp.：  184 – 183

6.6 Animate vs. Inanimate Possessor and the Semantics of Inalienability

pp.：  184 – 190

6.6.1 Inanimate

pp.：  184 – 184

6.6.2 Alienated but Inherent

pp.：  185 – 186

6.6.3 Part-To-Whole or Part-To-Component

pp.：  187 – 187

6.6.4 Inalienable Possessed Nouns: A Conspectus

pp.：  188 – 190

6.7 Alienable Nouns

pp.：  191 – 192

6.7.1 Possessed Nouns

pp.：  191 – 190

6.7.2 Twelve Different Varieties

pp.：  191 – 192

6.8 Attributive Modification and Possession

pp.：  193 – 193

6.9 The “Possessive” Relationship: The ‘Have’ Construction

pp.：  194 – 194

6.10 Conclusion

pp.：  195 – 196

Chapter Seven Pronouns, Pronominal and Object Clitics

pp.：  197 – 216

7.1 Personal Pronouns

pp.：  197 – 199

7.1.1 Person and Number

pp.：  197 – 198

7.1.2 Second Person Pronouns and Honorifics

pp.：  199 – 199

7.2 Demonstrative Pronouns

pp.：  200 – 200

7.3 Pronominal Clitics

pp.：  201 – 207

7.3.1 Human Arguments (Subject and Object)

pp.：  203 – 203

7.3.2 Object Clitics

pp.：  204 – 206

7.3.2.1 Pronominal Objects

pp.：  204 – 204

7.3.2.2 Inanimate External Objects

pp.：  205 – 205

7.3.2.3 Internalised Objects

pp.：  206 – 206

7.3.3 Pronominal Clitics and Temporal Adverbs

pp.：  207 – 207

7.4 Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns

pp.：  208 – 209

7.5 Reflexive Forms

pp.：  210 – 213

7.6 Reciprocal Pronouns

pp.：  214 – 214

7.7 Locational Adverbial Demonstratives

pp.：  215 – 216

Chapter Eight Modification Including Temporal and Spatial Deixis

pp.：  217 – 240

Introduction

pp.：  217 – 216

8.1 Adjectives

pp.：  217 – 220

8.1.1 Characteristic Features

pp.：  217 – 217

8.1.2 The Semantic Content

pp.：  218 – 217

8.1.3 Attributive Adjectives

pp.：  218 – 218

8.1.4 Predicative Adjectives

pp.：  219 – 220

8.1.5 Colour Terms

pp.：  221 – 220

8.2 Dependency of Modifiers

pp.：  221 – 224

8.2.1 Proclitics and Modification

pp.：  221 – 224

8.2.2 Non-Dependent Modifiers

pp.：  225 – 224

8.3 Manner Adverbs

pp.：  225 – 226

8.4 Temporal Adverbs and Temporal Deixis

pp.：  227 – 231

8.4.1 Subjecthood and Temporal Adverbs

pp.：  227 – 227

8.4.2 Syntax of Words Indicating Time

pp.：  228 – 229

8.4.3 Compounding and Lexicalisation

pp.：  230 – 229

8.4.4 Multiplicity of Temporal Deixis

pp.：  230 – 230

8.4.5 Celestial Bodies as Temporal Markers

pp.：  231 – 230

8.4.6 Temporal Categorisation and Hunting and Gathering

pp.：  231 – 231

8.5 Spatial Deixis

pp.：  232 – 236

8.5.1 Distance and Direction

pp.：  233 – 233

8.5.2 Vertical and Horizontal Space

pp.：  234 – 234

8.5.3 Locational/Spatial Postpositions

pp.：  235 – 236

8.6 Body Division Classes and Adverbs

pp.：  237 – 236

8.7 Third Person Demonstrative Pronouns and Deixis

pp.：  237 – 240

Chapter Nine The Verb and Verb Complex

pp.：  241 – 270

Introduction

pp.：  241 – 241

9.1 Verbal Proclitics

pp.：  242 – 242

9.2 Intransitive Verbs

pp.：  243 – 244

9.3 Transitive Verbs

pp.：  245 – 250

9.4 Reflexive/Self-directed

pp.：  251 – 251

9.5 The Distancing of the Verbal Proclitic from its Host

pp.：  252 – 253

9.6 The Causative/Applicative

pp.：  254 – 258

9.6.1 The Morphological Causative

pp.：  255 – 257

9.6.2 Periphrastic Causatives

pp.：  258 – 258

9.7 Formative Affixes

pp.：  259 – 260

9.8 Tense, Aspect and Mood (TAM)

pp.：  261 – 267

9.8.1 Past Tense

pp.：  261 – 263

9.8.2 Non-Past Tense

pp.：  264 – 263

9.8.3 Aspect

pp.：  264 – 265

9.8.4 Mood

pp.：  266 – 267

9.9 The Copula Be or Jiyo

pp.：  268 – 268

9.10 The Verbs ‘Come’ and ‘Go’

pp.：  269 – 270

Chapter Ten Syntactic Organisation

pp.：  271 – 300

Introduction

pp.：  271 – 270

10.1 Word Order

pp.：  271 – 278

10.1.1 Adjectives and Nouns

pp.：  271 – 272

10.1.2 Genitive

pp.：  273 – 272

10.1.3 Case Markers

pp.：  273 – 273

10.1.4 Numerals and Quantifiers

pp.：  274 – 273

10.1.5 Degree Words

pp.：  274 – 274

10.1.6 Manner Adverbs

pp.：  275 – 274

10.1.7 Temporal Adverbs

pp.：  275 – 275

10.1.8 Negative Verb

pp.：  276 – 275

10.1.9 Relative Markers

pp.：  276 – 276

10.1.10 Interrogatives

pp.：  277 – 276

10.1.11 Adpositional Phrases

pp.：  277 – 277

10.1.12 Variability in Word Order

pp.：  278 – 277

10.1.13 Deviation from the Standard SOV Pattern

pp.：  278 – 277

10.1.14 Variability in Proclitics

pp.：  278 – 278

10.2 Coordination

pp.：  279 – 281

10.2.1 Nominal Coordination

pp.：  280 – 279

10.2.2 Pronominal Coordination

pp.：  280 – 279

10.2.3 Adjectival Coordination

pp.：  280 – 280

10.2.4 Verbal and Sentential Coordination

pp.：  281 – 280

10.2.5 Adversative Coordination

pp.：  281 – 281

10.2.6 Comitative Conjunction

pp.：  282 – 281

10.3 Negation

pp.：  282 – 283

10.3.1 Emphatic Negative Coordination

pp.：  283 – 282

10.3.2 Prohibitive Negation

pp.：  283 – 283

10.4 Interrogatives

pp.：  284 – 285

10.5 Non-finite Subordination

pp.：  286 – 290

10.5.1 Verb Serialisation

pp.：  286 – 288

10.5.2 Cause and Effect

pp.：  289 – 288

10.5.3 Conditional Clauses

pp.：  289 – 289

10.5.4 Action Nominals

pp.：  290 – 290

10.6 Clause Chaining

pp.：  291 – 291

10.7 Comparative Constructions

pp.：  292 – 294

10.8 Relativisation

pp.：  295 – 296

10.9 Syntax of the Possessive Construction

pp.：  297 – 300

10.9.1 Possessed NP as the Head

pp.：  297 – 297

10.9.2 Possessed NP as Object

pp.：  298 – 297

10.9.3 Identification Question

pp.：  298 – 297

10.9.4 Complement Phrase

pp.：  298 – 297

10.9.5 Verbless Constructions

pp.：  298 – 300

Appendix A Lico’s Genealogical Affiliation and Her Language Profile

pp.：  301 – 302

Appendix B An Acoustic Study of Problematic Lateral

pp.：  303 – 306

Text The Great Narrative of Phertajido

pp.：  307 – 318

Bibliography

pp.：  319 – 324

Index

pp.：  325 – 328

Photographs of Contact Persons

pp.：  329 – 331