Acknowledgements

Introduction

A Biographical Sketch

Previous Studies

Sources and Organization of the Study

Ridạ̄'s Sources of Knowledge of the West: With Special Reference to Christianity

1.1. Western Ideas in Arabic Print

1.1.1. Hammurabi and the Babel-und-Bibel-Streit (1903)

1.1.2. Arabic Translation of the Encyclopaedia of Islam (1933)

1.2. Al-Manār Literary Figures

1.2.1. Muslims Living in the West

1.2.2. Writers in the Muslim World

1.3. Conclusion

Riḍā and Arab Christians: Attitudes towards Syrian Christians and the Egyptian Coptic Community

2.1. Syrian Christian Nationalists: A Common Political Agenda

2.1.1. Farah Anṭ̣ūn (al-Jāmi'a)

2.1.2. Jurjī Zaidān (al-Hilāl)

2.1.3. Ya'qūb Ṣ̣arrūf and Fāris Nimr (al-Muqtaṭ̣af )

2.1.4. Shiblī Shumayyil: A Fervent Darwinist

2.1.5. 'Ibrāhīm al-Yāzijī

2.1.6. Khalīl Sa'ādeh

2.1.7. Al-Machreq: A Jesuit Syrian Review

2.2. The Egyptian Coptic Community

2.2.1. Riḍā's Attitudes towards the Copts before 1911

2.2.2. The Coptic Congress of 1911

2.2.3. Salāma Mūsā

2.3. Conclusion

Al-Manār versus Evangelism: Rashīd Riḍā's Perceptions of the Social and theological Aspects of Missions

3.1. Mission is the Life of Religion

3.2. Mission and Colonialism

3.3. Confrontation with the British

3.4. Missionary Schools

3.5. Encounters with Missions in al-Manär

3.6. A Muslim Missionary Seminary

3.7. Conversion to Islam versus Evangelization

3.8. Al-Azhar Criticised

3.9. Conclusion

False Allegations or Proofs? Riḍā's Formative Polemics on Christianity

4.1. A Muslim Doubting the Authenticity of the Qur'ān

4.2. Researches of the Diligent

4.2.1. Three Prophets: Historical Doubts about Judaism and Christianity

4.2.2. Islam & Christianity: rree Goals of Religion

4.2.3. Judaism & Christianity Derived from Paganism?

4.2.4. Qur'ānic Proofs for the Genuineness of the Bible

4.2.5. Books of the Old and New Testament

4.3. The Glad Tidings of Peace

4.3.1. Muḥ̣ammad's Superiority above all Prophets?

4.3.2. Fear and Hope

4.3.3. Faith and Acts of Muslims

4.3.4. Absurd Treatment

4.3.5. Exceeding the Borders of Politeness

4.4. The Standard of Zion

4.4.1. Sinlessness of Prophets and Salvation

4.5. Conclusion

In Pursuit of a 'True' Gospel: Riḍā's Arabic Edition of the Gospel of Barnabas

5.1. Championing Tolstoy's Gospel

5.2. Announcing another 'True' Gospel?

5.3. A Freemason

5.3.1. Critical Analysis of Sa'pdeh's Preface

5.4 Riḍ̣ā Introduction

5.4.1. Later use by al-Manār

5.5. Short-lived Like an Apricot: A Missionary Response

5.6. Conclusion

The Art of Polemics: Tawfīq Ṣ̣idqī's Contributions to al-Manār and Riḍ̣ā's Use of Them

6.1. Al-Matbūlī of Cairo and the Resurrection of Jesus

6.2. The Religion of God in His Prophets' Books

6.2.1. Jesus as Offering

6.2.2. The Crucifixion and Divinity of Jesus in the Old Testament

6.3. The Doctrine of Crucifixion and Salvation

6.4. Sidqī's View on the Scriptures of the New Testament and Christian Doctrines

6.5. Riḍ̣ā's Reflections

6.5.1. Riḍ̣ā Discussing Crucifixion in a Missionary School

6.5.2. Reward and Salvation in Islam

6.5.3. A Pagan Nature of the doctrines of Crucifixion and Salvation?

6.5.4. An Illusive Crucifixion?

6.6. Conclusion

Recapitulation of Ideas: Christianity as Reflected in Riḍ̣ā's Fatwās

7.1. Early Encounters

7.2. Are Christians Unbelievers?

7.3. A Kuwaiti Petitioner on Slavery in the Bible

7.4. An Ahmadï Petitioner

7.5. A Lutheran Danish Missionary in Riḍ̣ā's Fatwās

7.6. An Egyptian Debater in Gairdner's Magazine

7.7. A Muslim Facing Missionaries in Tunisia

7.8. Fatherless Birth of Jesus: non-Qur'ānic?

7.9. Missionary Doubts on Qur'ānic Narratives

7.10. Miḥ̣rāb and Altar

7.11. Don't Recite the Qur'ānic Verses on Christians in Public!

7.12. A Muslim Copyist of Missionary Books and Crafting the Cross for Christians

7.13. Conclusion

Conclusion

Bibliography

Private Archives

Works in Arabic

Works in Western Languages

Internet Websites

Appendices

Index