Contents

List of Figures, Tables, and Maps

Preface to the Third Edition

Preface to the Second Edition

Preface to the First Edition

Foreword to the First Edition

Abbreviations

Table of International Agreements

Table of Cases

Part One Introduction

Chapter One Maintaining Freedom of the Seas

Chapter Two Identification of Excessive Maritime Claims

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Historic Bays

2.3 Baselines

2.4 Territorial Sea Breadth

2.5 Contiguous Zones

2.6 Exclusive Economic Zones

2.7 Continental Shelves

2.8 Archipelagos

2.9 Innocent Passage in the Territorial Sea

2.10 Straits Used for International Navigation

2.11 Overflight Restrictions

2.12 Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage

2.13 Navigation in EEZs

2.14 Marine Data Collection

2.15 Submarine Cables and Pipelines

2.16 Polar Areas

2.17 Underwater Cultural Heritage (UCH)

2.18 Peaceful Purposes/Peaceful Uses of the Seas

Part Two Legal Divisions of the Oceans and Airspace

Chapter Three Historic Waters

3.1 Criteria

3.2 United States Waters

3.3 Foreign Waters Considered Not to Be Historic

3.3.1 Argentina and Uruguay – Rio de la Plata

3.3.2 Australia – Anxious, Encounter, Lacepede and Rivoli Bays

3.3.3 Cambodia and Vietnam – Gulf of Thailand

3.3.4 Dominican Republic – Santo Domingo and La Escocesa Bays

3.3.5 India and Sri Lanka – Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay

3.3.6 Italy – Gulf of Taranto

3.3.7 Libya – Gulf of Sidra

3.3.8 Panama – Gulf of Panama

3.3.9 USSR – Peter the Great Bay

3.3.10 USSR – Northeast Passage

3.3.11 Vietnam – Gulf of Tonkin

3.4 Historic Bay Claims Rolled Back

3.4.1 Bays Now Qualifying As Juridical Bays

3.4.2 Egypt – Bay of El‑Arab

3.5 Settlement of Disputes

Chapter Four Baselines

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Normal Baseline

4.2.1 Reefs

4.3 Straight Baselines

4.3.1 Purpose

4.3.2 Areas of Application

4.3.3 Criteria for Drawing Straight Baseline Segments

4.3.4 Straight Baseline Policy of the United States

4.4 Other Baseline Rules

4.4.1 Low-Tide Elevations

4.4.2 Combination of Methods

4.4.3 Harbor Works

4.4.4 River Mouths

4.5 Bays and Other Features

4.5.1 Juridical Bays

4.5.2 Historic Bays

4.5.3 Charts and Publication

4.5.4 Islands

4.5.5 Artificial Islands and Off-Shore Installations

4.5.6 Roadsteads

4.6 Excessive Baseline Claims

4.6.1 Coastline Not Deeply Indented and Cut Into

4.6.2 Coastline Not Fringed with Islands

4.6.3 Non-Independent Archipelagos

4.6.4 Baseline Departs from the General Direction of the Coast

4.6.5 Waters Are Not Closely Linked to the Land Domain

4.6.6 Low-Tide Elevation Improperly Used As Basepoint

4.6.7 Terminus Located on a Maritime Boundary at Sea

4.6.8 Terminus Located on the Territory of Another State

4.6.9 Basepoints Located at Sea

4.6.10 Terminus Not Located on Own Mainland

4.6.11 Overlarge Bays and Gulfs

4.6.12 Estuary Closing Lines

4.6.13 Baselines Not Published

4.7 Excessive Claims Rolled Back

Chapter Five Territorial Sea

5.1 Maximum Permissible Breadth

5.2 United States Policy

5.3 Territorial Sea Claims

5.4 Excessive Claims Rolled Back

5.5 Territorial Sea Claims Greater Than 12 Miles

5.6 Territorial Seas Measured from Non-Conforming Baselines

Chapter Six Contiguous Zone

6.1 Juridical Regime

6.2 Excessive Claims

6.2.1 Security

6.2.2 Underwater Cultural Heritage

6.2.3 Contiguous Zones (CZ) Drawn from Non-Conforming Baselines

6.3 Excessive Claims Rolled Back

Chapter Seven Exclusive Economic Zone

7.1 Juridical Regime

7.2 Status As Customary Law

7.3 United States Policy

7.4 Excessive Claims

7.4.1 All Laws Apply in Eez

7.4.2 All Artificial Islands, Installations and Structures

7.4.3 Imprisonment for Fisheries Violations

7.4.4 Delimitation Not from Baselines

7.4.5 Eezs Drawn from Non-Conforming Baselines

7.4.6 Residual Rights in the EEZ

7.4.7 Islands and Rocks: Aves Island

7.5 Special Areas

Chapter Eight Continental Shelf

8.1 Geologic Definition

8.2 Juridical Definitions

8.3 Rights and Duties

8.4 Limits of the Continental Shelf beyond 200 Miles

8.4.1 Definition

8.4.2 Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf

8.4.3 Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf

8.4.4 Revenue Sharing

8.5 Excessive Claims

8.6 Continental Shelves Measured from Non-Conforming Baselines

Chapter Nine Archipelagos

9.1 Archipelagic States

9.2 Island‑Mainland States

9.3 Baselines

9.3.1 Straight Archipelagic Baselines

9.3.2 Closing Lines

9.4 Legal Status

9.5 Excessive Claims

Part Three Navigation and Overflight Rights and Duties

Chapter Ten In The Territorial Sea

10.1 Right of Innocent Passage

10.2 Permissible Restrictions on Innocent Passage

10.2.1 Temporary Suspension of Innocent Passage

10.3 Excessive Restrictions on Innocent Passage

10.3.1 Time Limits for Passage; Prohibited Zones

10.3.2 Compulsory Pilotage for Sovereign Immune Vessels

10.3.3 Passage Limited to Sea Lanes

10.3.4 Prior Notice or Permission for Passage of Warships

10.3.5 Enforcement of Violations

10.3.6 Limitations on Number of Warships

10.3.7 Nuclear Powered Warships

10.3.8 Claims Rolled Back

10.4 Excessive Restrictions on the Transport of Hazardous Waste

10.5 Places of Refuge for Ships in Distress

10.6 Assistance Entry

Chapter Eleven Straits Used for International Navigation

11.1 Legal Regime

11.2 Transit Passage

11.3 Innocent Passage

11.4 International Straits Not Completely Overlapped by Territorial Seas

11.5 “Straits Used for International Navigation”

11.6 Legal Status of Waters Forming International Straits

11.7 Rights and Duties of States Bordering Straits and of Ships and Aircraft During Transit Passage

11.7.1 Safety at Sea

11.7.2 Cooperation

11.8 Navigational Regimes of Particular Straits

11.8.1 Åland

11.8.2 Bab El Mandeb

11.8.3 Bering Strait

11.8.4 Bonifacio

11.8.5 Bosporus and Dardanelles

11.8.6 Gibraltar

11.8.7 Hormuz

11.8.8 Kuril Straits

11.8.9 Magellan

11.8.10 Malacca and Singapore

11.8.11 Messina

11.8.12 Northeast Passage

11.8.13 Northwest Passage

11.8.14 The Oresund and the Belts

11.8.15 Sunda and Lombok

11.8.16 Tiran

11.8.17 Torres Strait

11.8.18 United Kingdom Straits

Chapter Twelve Overflight Restrictions

12.1 Juridical Regime

12.2 Excessive Claims

12.2.1 Territorial Airspace Wider Than Territorial Sea

12.2.2 Flight Information Regions (FIR)

12.2.3 Restricted Airspace over High Seas

12.2.4 Excessive Territorial Sea Claim

12.2.5 Airspace over the EEZ

12.2.6 Airspace over Archipelagic Waters

Chapter Thirteen Navigation and Overflight in Archipelagos

13.1 Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage

13.1.1 Adoption and Designation of Archipelagic Sea Lanes

13.2 Rights and Duties of Ships and Aircraft during Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage and of Archipelagic States

13.3 Innocent Passage

13.4 Archipelagic Waters Not Claimed

13.5 Excessive Claims

13.5.1 Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage only in Designated Sea Lanes

13.5.2 No Transit Passage Rights in Archipelagic Waters

13.5.3 Non-Recognition of Archipelagic Sea Lanes Passage

13.5.4 Overflight Restrictions

13.5.5 Prior Permission for Innocent Passage

Chapter Fourteen Navigation in Exclusive Economic Zones

14.1 Criteria

14.2 Excessive Claims

14.2.1 Military Activities in the EEZ

14.2.2 Law Enforcement Activities in the EEZ

14.2.3 Transit of Fishing Vessels

14.2.4 Transit of Hazardous Material

14.2.5 Transit of Nuclear Material

14.3 Transfer of Oil Between Ships at Sea

14.3.1 Bunkering in the EEZ

Chapter Fifteen Marine Data Collection

15.1 Definitions

15.1.1 Marine Scientific Research

15.1.2 Surveys

15.1.3 Operational Oceanography

15.1.4 Exploration and Exploitation

15.2 Legal Regimes under the 1958 Geneva Conventions

15.3 Legal Regimes under the LOS Convention

15.3.1 Marine Scientific Research

15.4 Marine Scientific Research under the LOS Convention

15.4.1 Territorial Sea

15.4.2 Archipelagic Waters

15.4.3 International Straits and Archipelagic Sea Lanes

15.4.4 EEZ and Continental Shelf

15.4.5 The High Seas and the Area

15.4.6 Research Installations and Equipment

15.4.7 Responsibility and Liability

15.5 U.S. Marine Scientific Research Policy

15.6 Role of the U.S. State Department in Marine Scientific Research

15.7 Coastal State Practice Regarding Marine Scientific Research underthe LOS Convention

15.8 Value of the LOS Convention Today for Marine Scientific Research

15.8.1 Marine Scientific Research Dispute Settlement Regime

15.9 Survey Activities under the LOS Convention

15.9.1 Survey Activities vs. Marine Scientific Research

15.9.2 In the Territorial Sea

15.9.3 In International Straits and Archipelagic Sea Lanes

15.9.4 In the Exclusive Economic Zone

15.10 Military Activities, including Military Surveys

15.11 Operational Oceanography

15.11.1 Operational Oceanography Programs

15.11.2 Coordination of Operational Oceanographic Programs

15.11.3 Data Collection Platforms and Instruments

15.11.4 Operational Oceanography Summary

15.12 Exploration and Exploitation

15.13 Summary

Chapter Sixteen Submarine Cables and Pipelines

16.1 Legal Regime

16.1.1 Submarine Cables and Pipelines in the Territorial Sea and Archipelagic Waters

16.1.2 Submarine Cables and Pipelines in the EEZ and on the Continental Shelf

16.1.3 Submarine Cables and Pipelines on the High Seas and Deep Seabed

16.2 Other Protections for Submarine Cables and Pipelines

16.3 Difficulties in Protecting Submarine Cables

16.3.1 Cable Route Planning and Cable Route Surveys

16.3.2 Causes of Damage to Submarine Cables

16.4 Excessive Claims Pertaining to Repairing Submarine Cables

16.5 Other Excessive Claims

16.6 Inadequate National Legislation

16.7 Improvements to COLREGS

Part Four Recent Developments

Chapter Seventeen Polar Areas

17.1 The Polar Areas

17.2 The Arctic

17.2.1 Terminology

17.2.2 Maritime Boundaries in the Arctic Ocean

17.2.3 Sources of Law

17.2.4 Soft Law

17.2.5 The Arctic Council

17.2.6 Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment

17.2.7 Recent Shipping through the Arctic

17.2.8 Tools

17.2.9 Unilateral Regulation: Canada and Russia

17.2.10 Extended Continental Shelf Claims in the Arctic Ocean

17.3 Antarctica

17.3.1 Extended Continental Shelf Claims in the Southern Ocean

17.3.2 Inspections

17.3.3 Southern Ocean Marine Conservation (Ccamlr)

17.3.4 Antarctic Tourism

17.3.5 Liability Arising from Environmental Emergencies

17.3.6 Handbook of the Antarctic Treaty System

Chapter Eighteen Environmental Protection and Resource Conservation

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Environmental Protection

18.2.1 Pollution from Ships

18.2.2 Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter

18.2.3 “Generally Accepted/Applicable”

18.2.4 Regional Agreements and Strategies

18.2.5 MARPOL Special Areas and Emission Control Areas

18.2.6 Particularly Sensitive Sea Areas

18.2.7 Mandatory Ship Reporting and Ship Routeing

18.2.8 Excessive Environmental Protection Claims

18.3 Resource Conservation

18.3.1 Excessive Resource Conservation Claims

18.4 Unced Agenda 21 Chapter 17

18.5 Summary

Chapter Nineteen Sovereign Immunity and Sunken Ships

19.1 Sovereign Immunity of Warships and Military Aircraft

19.1.1 Factors for Consideration in Drafting

19.2 Sunken Warships and Military Aircraft

19.2.1 Historical Evolution of Rules

19.2.2 Current Situation

19.3 Underwater Cultural Heritage

19.4 Other Unresolved Questions

19.4.1 Rules Applicable to Private Cargo on Sunken Military Craft

19.4.2 Are Sunken Warships Still “Warships”?

19.4.3 War Graves – Cultural Differences

19.4.4 Do These Rules Apply to Ships Sunk before the 17th Century?

19.4.5 Sunken Warships Located in Disputed Waters

19.4.6 Ships, Other Than Warships, on Government Service

19.4.7 Warships on Commercial Service

19.4.8 Application of Marine Archaeological Rules

19.4.9 Coastal State Authority under National Law to Protect Wrecks

19.5 Significance

Chapter Twenty Maritime Law Enforcement

20.1 Maritime Law Enforcement

20.1.1 Jurisdiction to Prescribe

20.1.2 Jurisdiction to Enforce

20.1.3 Limitations on the Exercise of Maritime Law Enforcement Jurisdiction

20.1.4 Shipboarding

20.2 International Maritime Crimes

20.2.1 Narcotics Trafficking – Maritime Counter-Drug Operations

20.2.2 Immigration Control – Alien Smuggling

20.2.3 Counter-Proliferation

20.2.4 Piracy and Related Crimes

20.3 Maritime Law Enforcement Cooperation

20.4 Treatment of Seafarers

20.4.1 Fair Treatment of Seafarers in the Event of a Maritime Accident

20.4.2 Casualty Investigation Code

20.4.3 Oily Water Separators (Ows) and the “Magic Pipe”

20.4.4 Treatment of Seafarers Taken Hostage

Part Five The Future and Conclusions

Chapter Twenty-One The Future of U.S. Ocean Policy

21.1 The “Other” Excessive Maritime Claims

21.1.1 Presidential Leadership for Accession to the Los Convention

21.2 Implementation of U.S. Ocean Policy

21.2.1 Freedom of Navigation (Fon) Program: The “Lever of U.S. Ocean Policy”

21.2.2 Promulgation of Policy Guidance for Maritime Forces

21.2.3 Development of Conventional International Law

21.3 U.S. Oceans Policy for the 21st Century

Appendices

Appendix One President’s Ocean Policy Statement, March 10, 1983

Appendix Two Proclamation 5030, Exclusive Economic Zone of the United States of America, March 10, 1983

Appendix Three Proclamation 5928, Territorial Sea of the United States of America, December 27, 1988

Appendix Four Proclamation 7219, Contiguous Zone of the United States, September 2, 1999

Appendix Five Joint Statement by the United States and Soviet Union, with Uniform Interpretation of Rules of International Law Governing Innocent Passage, September 23, 1989

Appendix Six Presidential Letter of Transmittal of the Law of the Sea Convention, October 6, 1994

Appendix Seven Secretary of State’s Letter of Submittal to the President, September 23, 1994

Appendix Eight Commentary – The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Agreement on Implementation of Part XI

Appendix Nine Senate Executive Reports on the Law of the Sea Convention

Appendix Ten Minority Report and Rebuttal

Appendix Eleven Table of Comparable Provisions 1958 Geneva Conventions and 1982 LOS Convention

Appendix Twelve Evolution of the Modern Law of the Sea

Appendix Thirteen Sources and Implementation of LOS Convention

Appendix Fourteen U.S. Arctic Policy, January 9, 2009

Appendix Fifteen The Ilulissat Declaration, 2008

Appendix Sixteen United States Maritime Law Enforcement Agreements (in Force or Signed Awaiting Entry into Force), and Understandings and Operational Procedures

Appendix Seventeen Interdiction Principles for the Proliferation Security Initiative, September 4, 2003

Appendix Eighteen Parties to the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

Appendix Nineteen U.S. Maritime Boundaries

Index