Contents

List of Illustrations

Preface

Chapter One Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Interpretations of Reformed Scholasticism

1.3 Reformed Scholasticism as Perfect Will Theology

1.4 The Reformed Model of Divine Agency

1.5 The Modality of the Reformed Model: a Contingency Model

1.6 The Medieval Background of the Reformed Model: Duns Scotus

1.7 Plan

Part I Tradition-Historical Inquiry

Chapter Two Perfect Will Theology: a Basic Outline

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Theology

2.3 Natural Theology

2.3.1 Divine Existence

2.3.2 Divine Nature

2.3.3 Divine Life

2.3.4 Divine Providence

2.4 Revealed Theology

2.5 Conclusion

Chapter Three The Jesuit Counter-Reformation: Conditionalizing Divine Knowledge

3.1 Francisco Suárez (1548–1617)

3.2 Unconditional Future Contingents

3.2.1 Determinate Truth-Value

3.2.2 The Mode of Knowledge

3.2.3 Foreknowledge and Contingency

3.3 Conditional Future Contingents

3.3.1 Determinate Truth-Value

3.3.2 The Mode of Knowledge

3.3.3 Conditional Knowledge and Divine Will

3.4 Conclusion

3.5 William Twisse (1578–1646)

3.6 Preliminaries: The Preface of the Exposition

3.6.1 Methodological Preliminaries

3.6.2 Twisse’s Basic Argument

3.7 The “Defense of Human Freedom”

3.8 Unconditional Future Contingents

3.8.1 The Real Point of Debate

3.8.2 Determinate Truth-Value

3.8.3 The Mode of Knowledge

3.9 Conditional Future Contingents

3.9.1 The Case against Middle Knowledge

3.9.2 Divine Knowledge and Will

3.10 Conclusion

Chapter Four The Remonstrant Debate: Conditionalizing Divine Will

4.1 Simon Episcopius (1583–1643)

4.2 A Conditional Decision and a Moveable End of Life

4.3 Divine Foreknowledge

4.4 Contingency and Foreknowledge

4.5 Conclusion

4.6 Gisbertus Voetius (1589–1676)

4.7 An Unconditional Decision and an Immoveable End of Life

4.8 No Conditional Knowledge

4.9 The Decision and its Modality

4.10 Conclusion

Chapter Five The Cartesian Controversy: Magnifying Divine Will

5.1 René Descartes (1596–1650)

5.2 Descartes’ Creation Doctrine

5.3 Divine Will and Knowledge

5.4 Conclusion

5.5 Melchior Leydecker (1642–1721)

5.6 Divine Essence: Power and Will

5.7 The Source of Possibility

5.8 Finite Essences: Divine Essence as the Source of Being

5.9 Divine Knowledge and Will

5.10 Conclusion

Chapter Six The Spinozist Shift: Magnifying Divine Intellect

6.1 Benedictus de Spinoza (1632–77)

6.2 God’s Necessary Existence

6.3 God’s Necessary Causation

6.4 Divine Providence and Predestination

6.5 Conclusion

6.6 Melchior Leydecker

6.7 The Definition of Substance

6.8 The Eternal Order

6.9 Conclusion

Part II Analytical Inquiry

Chapter Seven Modal Logic and Possible Worlds

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Logic

7.3 Modal Logic

7.3.1 A Syntax of Modal Logic: the System S5

7.3.2 A Semantics of Modal Logic: Possible Worlds

7.4 Conclusion: Modal Logic and Theology

Chapter Eight Consistency of Seventeenth-Century Thought Modal Analysis and Evaluation

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Jesuit Thought

8.2.1 Analysis

8.2.2 Evaluation

8.3 Remonstrant Thought

8.3.1 Analysis

8.3.2 Evaluation

8.4 Cartesian Thought

8.4.1 Analysis

8.4.2 Evaluation

8.5 Spinozist Thought

8.5.1 Analysis

8.5.2 Evaluation

8.6 Reformed Thought

8.6.1 Analysis

8.6.2 Evaluation

8.7 Conclusion

Part III Systematic-Theological Inquiry

Chapter Nine Perfect Will Theology: A Modal Argument

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The Best Possible Person and Possible Worlds

9.3 The Best Possible Agency: Infinite Power, Freedom, and Wisdom

9.4 Conclusion

Chapter Ten Perfect Will Theology and Human Freedom

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Created Freedom

10.3 Eternal Providence and Created Freedom

10.4 Actual Providence

10.5 Actual Providence and Created Freedom

10.6 Conclusion

Chapter Eleven Perfect Will Theology and the Problem of Evil

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Reformed Thought on Evil

11.3 The Free Will Defense

11.4 Evaluation

11.4.1 Leibniz’ Lapse and Counterfactuals

11.4.2 Transworld depravity

11.5 The Superfluity of Theodicies

11.6 A Perfect Will Defense

11.7 Conclusion

Chapter Twelve Epilogue

12.1 Introduction

12.2 The Systematic Center and Historical Sources of Reformed Thought

12.3 Current Relevance

12.3.1 Perfect Will Theology and Modern Theology

12.3.2 Perfect Will Theology and Natural Science

12.4 Conclusion

Appendix: List of Logical Symbols

Bibliography

Index