Volume I

Contents

Preface

Note on Transliteration

Acknowledgements

List of Maps

PART 1: THE PRE-CHINGGISID ERA

Introduction

1 Ancient Inner Asian Nomads: Their Economic Basis and Its Significance in Chinese History

Manchuria and Inner Mongolia

Northern Mongolia and South Siberia

Xinjiang and Contiguous Regions

Further Considerations

Conclusions

2 The Account of the Xiongnu

3 The Turk Imperial Tradition in the Pre-Chinggisid Era

4 The Geography of Chingis Khan

PART 2: CHINGGIS KHAN AND THE MONGOL EMPIRE

Introduction

5 The Secret History of the Mongols

6 Some Remarks on the Ideological Foundations of Chingis Khan's Empire

7 Mongolian Tributary Practices of the Thirteenth Century

I Introduction

II Tribute and Levy

III Mongolian Tributary Practices in the West

8 Some Reflections on Cinggis Qan's Jasag

9 From Ulus to Khanate: The Making of the Mongol States c. 1220 - c. 1290

The Four Uluses

Ulus and Rulership

The Distribution of Troops and Spoils

Territorial Appanages

The Emergence of the Khanates in Western and Central Asia

Ulus and Khanate in the Far East

Conclusion

Appendix

10 The Mongol Mission

Of Their Character, Good and Bad, Their Customs, Food, etc.

Of War, Their Battle Array, Arms, Their Cunning in Engagements, Cruelty to Captives, Assault on Fortifications, Their Bad Faith with Those Who Surrender to Them, etc.

11 The Mission to Asia

The Tartars and Their Dwellings

The Food of the Tartars

How They Make Cosmos

The Animals They Eat, Their Clothes and Their Hunting

How the men Shave and the Women Adorn Themselves

The Duties of the Women and Their Work

Of Their Justice and Judgments, Death and Burial

Baatu's Orda and How They Were Received by Him

The Journey to the Court of Mangu Chan

The River Iagat and Various Regions and Races

Of Their Hunger and Thirst and Other Miseries They Endured on Their Journey

How Buri Was Put to Death

How the Nestorians and Saracens Intermingle, and of Their Temples

Of Their Temples and Idols and How They Comport Themselves in the Worship of Their Gods

Of Various Tribes and of Men Who Used to Eat Their Parents

Things Done, Seen and Heard by Friar William at Mangu's Court

Mangu's Palace at Caracorum, and the Feast of Easter

Master William's Sickness and the Death of the Nestorian Priest

Caracorum and the Family of Mangu

The Soothsayers

12 Guard and Government in the Reign of the Grand Qan Mongke, 1251 - 59

Mongke and the Mongolian Empire

Administration of the Realm

Recruitment and Utilization of Central Government Personnel

Mongke's Central Secretariat - Its Genealogy and General Characteristics

13 The Dissolution of the Mongol Empire

14 From Mongol Empire to Yuan Dynasty: Changing Forms of Imperial Rule in Mongolia and Central Asia

Territorial Organization of the Mongol Empire, 1250 - 1260

The End of Mongolia as Imperial Center, 1260 - 1264

The Limits of Yuan Control in Central Asia

Yuan Control in Mongolia

Conclusion

Volume II

Contents

PART 3: YUAN AND LATE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Introduction

15 The Travels of Marco Polo

Kubilai Khan

16 Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times

Mismanagement and the Chinese Response

Ahmad and Financial Difficulties

Integration of the Southern Sung

The Grand Canal

The Fiscal Policies of Lu Shih-Jung

Sangha and Buddhist Abuses

Khubilai's Problems with Religions

17 Structure and Function in the Yuan Imperial Government

Organs of the Imperial Government

The Structures and Functions of the Bureaus

General Features of Yuan Rule

18 Imperial Governance in Yuan Times

19 The Crisis of the Forty and the Four

Attempts to Overcome a Crisis of State: The Oirats Gain in Strength

The Khan and the Taish, Working Hand-in-hand to Put the Country in Order

20 The Twelve Tumen of the Aglag Khuree Khalkha Mongols

21 Six Tumen

The Six Tumen or Six realms

The Four Oirat

22 The Jewel Translucent Sutra

23 Early Lamaism in Mongolia

24 A MongolianSource to the Lamaist Suppression of Shamanism in the 17th Century

The Religious Situation in Eastern Mongolia During the 1st Part of the 17th Century

The Functions of 'Pure' Shamanism

A Pattern of Buddhist Missionary Approach

The Missionary Methods of Neyici Toyin

The Domoi (1739) and the Hor Cos Byun (1819 - Huth Translation) Compared

25 Titles, Appanages, Marriages, and Officials: A Comparison of Political Forms in the Zunghar and Thirteenth-century Mongol Empires

From Chinggisids to Oirats: The Zunghars in Inner Asian History

The Ruler

The Ruler's Inner Circle

Territorial and Administrative Structure

Marriage Alliance

Local Administration and Class Stratification

Law and Law Codes

Religion and Ethnicity

Conclusion

Volume III

Contents

PART 4: THE QING PERIOD

Introduction

Politics and Influences

Socila Issues

THE TEXTS

26 Military Mobilization in Seventeenth and Eighteenth-century China, Russia, and Mongolia

Introduction

The Rise and Fall of the Zunghars

Socio-economic Parallels: The Seventeenth-century Crisis

The Hegemony of Inscriptions

Conclusion: Three Views of the Conquest

27 The Biography of Ondor Gegeen

How Zanabazar Was Raised to Be the First Bogd, and How the Palace of the Khutagt Was Built

28 The Khalkha Djirum

29 The Economic Basis of feudalism in Mongolia

The Form and Relationships of Property in Land

Form and Relationships of Private Property in Livestock

The Imperial Alba

Conclusions

30 The Spread of Trade to the Countryside

31 Things and the Qing

Dressing the Qing

Visualizing the Qing

Dress, Gender and Cultural Exchange

32 The Mongol Rebellion of 1756 - 1757

33 The Social and Economic Situation of the Shav

The Duties Carried Out by the Shav

34 The Economy of the Monasteries

35 Urga or Da Khuree

Various Names of Urga

The Location of Urga and Mount Khaan Uula

Population of Khuree

External Appearance of Khuree Streets

The Khuree Market

Peking Shops and Their Mode of Existance

Shops of Chinese from Shansi

Urga Craft and Industrial Establishments

Beggars

A Police Unit in the Khuree

Urga Slums

Gandan

The Mai-Mai-Ch'eng

Streets of the Mai-Mai-Ch'eng

Types of Chinese Shops

Dwellings of the Mongols

The Chinese Cemetery

Administration of the Mai-Mai-Ch'eng

Dzakha Deere (on the Outskirts)

Yamuns of the Urga Ambans

Khoroons

The New Urga Fortress

The Russian Consulate

36 Document 23: Petitions of Grievances Submitted by the People

37 Ch'ing Policies in Outer Mongolia 1900 - 1911

The Setting of Outer Mongolia

Post-Boxer Reforms and Frontier Defense

San-to and the New Administration

Conclusion

PART 5: TWENTIETH-CENTURY MONGOLIA

Introduction

38 Tales of an Old Lama

Worshipping the Holy Mountain

The Games

Shooting Walnuts

Target Shooting

Obo Worship

The Seven Khutuktus

The Holy One's Marriage

Morlegtseg Semben or Soivon

Baldan Khachin

Namjiltunsag the Waiter

The Manzshir Lama

Badamdorj and Shanzav

The Holy One's Curios

39 The Lamas of Mongolia

40 Beasts, Men and Gods

"Death from the White Man Will Stand Behind You"

The Horror of War!

In the City of Living Gods, 30,000 Buddhas and 60,000 Monks

A Son of Crusaders and Privateers

The Camp of Martyrs

Before the Face of Buddha

"The Man with a Head Like a Saddle"

41 Soviet Russia and the Mongolian Revolution of 1921

Introduction

The Historical Background of the Mongolian Revolution

The Early Soviet Attitude to Mongolia

The Formation of the Mongolian People's Party

The Mongol Delegates at Verkhneudinsk

The Far Eastern Republic

The Mongol Delegates in Soviet Russia

The Soviet Dilemma

Ungern-Sternberg in Mongolia

The Mongolian War of Revolution

An Evaluation of the Ungern Threat

Soviet Russia, Japan and China

Conclusion

42 A Re-examination of the Establishment of the Mongolian People's Party, Centring on Dogsom's Memoir

Introduction

The Establishment of the Civil Servants' Group

The Unification of the Civil Servants' Group and the People's Group and the Activities that Ensued

A Re-examination of the Date of the Establishment of the Mongolian People's Party

Conclusion

43 The Buriat Intelligentsia

Nationalists

Pan-Mongolists

Russian (Czarist and Soviet) Agents

Scholars and Educators

Fate of the Buriat Intelligentsia

Conclusions

44 The Autobiography of the Diluv Khutagt

1922 - 1929

Arrest and Examination 1930 - 1931

Trial and Judgement

45 The Great Purge

The Soviet Army Arrives

The Great Purge Begins

Lamas and Buriads Targeted

Choibalsan's Next Instructions

The End of Amar

46 The Way of Life of Co-operative Herders

47 The Eight-hundredth Anniversary of Chinggis Khan

The Conception of the Chinggis Anniversary

Planning and Preparation for the Chinggis Anniversary

The Scientific Conference

The Chinggis Monument

The Aftermath of the Chinggis Anniversary

The Mongolian Nationalist Movement

48 Buu Mart!

A Person Who's Forgotten His Mother

"People's Revolution"

Us

49 Democracy Comes to Mongolia

The Events

50 Avgai Khad

51 Producer Groups and the Decollectivization of the Mongolian Pastoral Economy

Introduction

Historical Patterns of Pastoralism

Cooperatives (Horshoo)

Conclusion

Index