Chapter
Anatomy and Regulation of the Optical Nerve Blood Flow
Anatomy of the Vascular Supply
Histology of Blood Vessels in the Optic Nerve
Regulation of Ocular Blood Flow
Technology for Measuring Ocular Blood Flow
Blue Field Entotpic Technique
Laser Doppler Velocimetry
Pulsatile Ocular Blood Flow
Optical Doppler Tomography
Angiogenesis in Inflammation
The Process and Models of Angiogenesis
Mediators of Angiogenesis
Angiogenesis Inhibition: Therapeutic Targeting of Angiogenesis in Inflammation
Angiogenesis in Response to Hypoxia
HIFs and Angiogenic Factors
HIFs and Ocular Angiogenesis
Introduction: Angiogenesis in the Eye
Vessel vasodilatation and degradation of the ECM
Endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and formation of tubular structures
Angiogenic and Antiangiogenic Molecules
Diabetic Retinopathy and Retinal Angiogenesis
Central Retinal Vein Occlusion and Retinal Angiogenesis
AMD and choroidal neovascularization
Choroidal Neovascularization
Tumor Angiogenesis in the Eye
Angiogenesis in Wound Healing
Cellular and Molecular Basis of Wound Healing
Molecular and Cellular Regulators of Wound Angiogenesis
Pericytes and Stromal Cells in Angiogenesis
Neovascularization and EPC
Therapeutic Angiogenesis in Chronic Wound Healing
Animal Models of Glaucoma
Primate Models of Glaucoma
Rodent Models of Glaucoma
Pressure-induced mouse models
Normal-tension mouse models
Developmental mouse models
Other Nonmammalian Models
Anti-Angiogenic Properties of Vitreous
Switch from Pro-Angiogenic to Anti- Angiogenic in Development
Transforming Growth Factor Beta
Pigment Epithelium-Derived Factor
Other Anti-Angiogenic Factors in Vitreous
Angiogenic Factors in Vitreous
Balance between Anti-Angiogenic and Angiogenic Factors
Antigen-Presenting Cells in the Eye and Ocular Surface
Antigen-Presenting Cells of the Ocular Surface
Epithelial Langerhans cells
Corneal APCs in Inflammation
The Function of APCs in Corneal Transplantation
The Function of APCs in Microbial Keratitis
Role of APCs in Allergic Eye Disease
Anterior Chamber-Associated Immune Deviation
Role of APCs in Age-Related Macular Degeneration
The Need for Artificial Corneas
Desired Characteristics for an Implantable AC
Synthetic Artificial Corneas or Keratoprosthesis
Self-Assembled Corneal Equivalents
Bioengineered ACs that Address Regeneration
The Definition and Etymology of Astigmatism
Ocular Astigmatism: Prevalence and Age- Related Changes
The Origin of Ocular Astigmatism
Image Formation and Refractive Specification in Astigmatism
Standard Notation for Specifying Astigmatic Refraction
Ocular Image Formation in Astigmatism
Classification of Ocular Astigmatism
Astigmatic Blurring and Visual Perception
Ocular Astigmatism During Near Work
Specialized Notations for Specifying Astigmatic Refraction
The Measurement of Ocular Astigmatism
The Correction of Ocular Astigmatism
Not Correcting Ocular Astigmatism
Avascularity of the Cornea
Corneal Avascularity and Optical Clarity
Endogenous Anti-Angiogenic Mechanisms
Loss of Corneal Avascularity
Immune Privilege of the Avascular Cornea
Corneal Transplant and Avascularity
Corneal Alymphaticity and Allograft Rejection
The Avascular Cornea as an Angiogenesis Study Platform
Binocular Vergence Eye Movements and the Near Response
A Coarse-to-Fine Strategy for Vergence
Cross-Coupling of Voluntary and Involuntary Motor Responses and the Near Response
Ideal Cross-Links for Three-Dimensional Viewing Geometry
Horizontal Vergence Coupling
Vertical Vergence Coupling
Effects of Listing's Law and Coupling with Convergence on Stereoscopic Depth Perception
Biological Properties of the Trabecular Meshwork Cells
Transforming Growth Factor-beta
The Biology of Schlemm's Canal
The Conventional Outflow Pathway
Cell-Cell and Cell-ECM Adhesion Strength
Biomechanics of Aqueous Humor Outflow Resistanceast
Regions of Low Outflow Resistance
The Inner-Wall Region of Schlemm's Canal
The Generation of Flow Resistance in the Inner-Wall Region of Schlemm's Canal
The inner-wall endothelium of Schlemm's canal
Pores as possible fixation artifacts and the possible importance of flow through inner-wall cell junctions or through water cha
Biomechanics of the Optic Nerve Headast
The Optic Nerve Head as a Biomechanical Structure
Mechanical Environment of the ONH and Peripapillary Sclera
Overview of the Mechanical Environment of the.ONH and Peripapillary Sclera
Mechanical Response of the ONH to Acutely Elevated IOP
The Contribution of the Sclera to ONH Biomechanics
Characterization of scleral geometry
Characterization of scleral material properties
Engineering Models of Stress and Strain in the ONH and Peripapillary Sclera
Numerical solutions.- FE analysis
Other Acute, .IOP-Related. Changes in the ONH
Restructuring and Remodeling of the ONH
Alterations in Connective Tissue Architecture, Cellular Activity, Axoplasmic Transport, and Blood Flow in Early Glaucoma
Alterations in Connective Tissue Architecture, Cellular Activity, Axoplasmic Transport, and Blood Flow in Later Stages of Glauc
Biomechanical Manipulation of ONH and Peripapillary Scleral Cells in Culture
Basic Research Directions
Inter- and Intrasubject Variations in Blink Rate
Benefits of Complete Blinks
Consequences of Incomplete Blinking
Lid Wiper Epitheliopathy Mechanisms and Symptoms
Indications for Blink Efficiency Exercises
Lubricant Therapy: Incomplete Blink Habit Reversal; Optimizing Lid Wiper and Corneal Therapy
Inner Blood-Retinal Barrier
Retinal endothelial cells
Müller cells, astrocytes, and pericytes
Outer Blood-Retinal Barrier
Polarity of the outer and inner barriers: TJ modulation
Other factors regulating the molecular movement in the eye
The Blood-Retinal Barrier and Ocular Immune Privilege
Clinical evaluation of the blood-retinal barrier
Blood-retinal barrier and macular edema
Relevance of BRB to Treatment of Retinal Diseases
Breakdown of the Blood-Retinal Barrier
Breakdown of the Retinal Pigmented Epithelium Blood-Retinal Barrier
Transport and Fluid Flow within the RPE and Eye
Methods to Assess RPE Barrier Structure and Function
Assays That Measure Barrier Properties of RPE
Clinical Conditions Associated with Breakdown of the RPE Barrier
Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy
Central Serous Retinopathy
Studies to Increase the Function of the BRB
Cellular Origin, Formation and Turnover of the Vitreous
The Composition of the Vitreous Body Extracellular Matrix
Synthesis of VB Proteins in the Eye and Assembly of the VB Gel
The Turnover of VB Proteins
Central Retinal Vein Occlusion
Site of Occlusion in CRVO
Demographic Characteristics
Differentiation of Ischemic from Nonischemic CRVO
Surgical or Invasive Treatments
Panretinal Photocoagulation
Primary Factor Responsible for Blindness in Ischemic CRVO with Neovascular Glaucoma
Overall Conclusions About Advocated Treatments for CRVO
Natural History of Visual Outcome in CRVO
Investigations of CRVO Patients
Chick Metabolism in the Chick Retina
Circadian Regulation of Cyclic AMP in Retina
Circadian Regulation of Melatonin Biosynthesis
Other Rhythms of Gene Expression and Metabolism in the Chick Retina
Choroidal Neovascularization
Choroidal Neovascularization
Clinical Detection of CNV
Vascular endothelial growth factor
Natural inhibitors of angiogenesis
Monocytes and macrophages
Variants of Pathologic Neovascularization in NVAMD
Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy
Retinal angiomatous proliferation
Chromatic Function of the Cones
Photopigments and Phototransduction
Fundamental Spectral Sensitivities
Prereceptoral Attenuation
Cone Spectral Sensitivities
Template for Cone Spectral Sensitivity
Cone Gains and von Kries Scaling
Selective Chromatic Adaptation
Eccentricity and Chromatic Function
Advantages of Cone Opponency
Ciliary Blood Flow and its Role for Aqueous Humor Formation
Relationship between Ciliary Blood Flow and Aqueous Production
The Circadian Clock in the Retina Regulates Rod and Cone Pathways
Rod and Cone Pathways in the Fish Retina
Day/Night Differences in the Light Responses of Neurons in the Fish Outer Retina
The Circadian Clock in the Retina, and Not the Retinal Response to the Ambient Illumination, Controls Rod-Cone Coupling
The Circadian Clock in the Mammalian Retina Controls Rod-Cone Coupling
A Circadian Clock Pathway in the Retina
Functional Implications of Circadian Clock Control of Rod-Cone Coupling
Melanopsin and the Mammalian ipRGC
Circadian Regulation of Ion Channels in Photoreceptors
Circadian Oscillators Regulate the Functions of the Visual System
Circadian Regulation of Photoreceptors
Ion Channels in Photoreceptors
Circadian Regulation of cGMP-gated Cation Channels
Signaling Pathways Leading to the Circadian Regulation of CNGCs
Circadian Phase-Dependent Modulation of Cone CNGCs by Dopamine
Modulation of Cone CNGCs by Somatostatin
Circadian Regulation of L-VGCCs
Circadian Regulation of Other Photoreceptor Ion Channels: Potassium Channels (K+ Channels)
Circadian Rhythms in the Fly's Visual System
The Fly's Circadian System
Circadian Rhythms in the Retina of the Compound Eye
Circadian Rhythms in the First Visual Neuropil (Lamina)
Circadian Plasticity of Synaptic Contacts
Circadian Plasticity of Second-Order Neurons and Glial Cells
Circadian Rhythms in Organelles inside Photoreceptor Terminals
Neurotransmitter Regulation of Circadian Rhythms in the Visual System
Circadian Circuits in the Fly's Visual System
The Role of Circadian Clocks in the Visual System
Color Blindness: Acquired
Classifying Acquired Color Blindness
Discriminating Acquired from Inherited Color Blindness
Conditions Resulting in an Acquired Color-Vision Defect
Age-related macular degeneration
Neurodegenerative diseases
Exposure to metals and chemicals
Color Blindness: Inherited
Photoreceptor Basis of Human Color Vision
Genetic Basis of Human Color Vision
Red-Green Color-Vision Deficiencies
Tritan Color-Vision Deficiencies
The Colorful Visual World of Butterflies
The Butterflies and Their Evolutionary History
Color Vision and the Butterfly Eye
Spectral Heterogeneity of Butterfly Eyes
Diversification of Visual Pigments via Gene Duplication and Positive Selection
Diversification of Photoreceptor Types via Filtering Pigments
Evolution of Sexually Dimorphic Eyes: Opsin Duplications and Sex-Specific Filtering Pigment Expression
Ecological Significance of Butterfly Visual System Diversity
Concept of Angiogenic Privilege
Introduction: Angiogenesis and Lymphangiogenesis
Corneal Angiogenic Privilege
Angiogenic and Anti-Angiogenic Molecules Involved in Corneal Neovascularization
Vascular endothelial growth factors
Vascular endothelial growth factor
Basic fibroblast growth factor
Inhibitory PAS (Per/Arnt/Sim) domain protein
Cornea and Corneal Epithelium
Angiogenic Privilege and Immune Privilege
Cone Photoreceptor Cells: Soma and Synapse
Morphological Implications of Spectral Sensitivity
Adaptation and Predictive Coding
Synaptic Transfer Function
Theory of Ephaptic Feedback
Bandpass Adaptation Filter
Congenital Cranial Dysinnervation Disorders
Early Concepts and Nomenclature
The Concept of Congenital Cranial Dysinnervation Disorders
Current Genetically Defined CCDDs
Congenital Fibrosis of the Extraocular Muscles Type 1 (CFEOM1; MIM #135700)
Congenital Fibrosis of the Extraocular Muscles Type 2 (CFEOM2; MIM #602078)
Congenital Fibrosis of the Extraocular Muscles Type 3 (CEOM3; MIM #600638)
Horizontal Gaze Palsy and Progressive Scoliosis (HGPPS; MIM #607313)
The HOXA1 Spectrum (BSAS and ABDS; MIM #601536)
Duane Retraction Syndrome (DRS)
Duane-Radial Ray Syndrome (DRRS or Okihiro syndrome; MIM #607323)
Duane Retraction Syndrome (DURS2-DRS; MIM #604356)
Conjunctiva Immune Surveillance
Conjunctival Morphology and Function Are Closely Interacting for Immune Surveillance
Epithelial Defense Mechanisms
Epithelial morphology and function
Epithelial Immune Surveillance Takes Care of Environmental Antigens
Physical and physicochemical barriers keep antigens outside
The mechanical washing effect of the tear film wipes away antigens and detritus
Epithelial innate immune defense factors
PRRs on epithelial cells provide an external alarm system
The conjunctival epithelium secretes diverse AMPs
Conventional antibacterial factors are surprisingly versatile defense tools
Conjunctival Lamina Propria: Morphology and Function of the Diffuse Mucosal Immune System
Diffusely arranged lymphoid and innate cells contribute to conjunctival immune surveillance
Different subtypes of lymphocytes occur in the conjunctiva
The conjunctiva contributes actively to the secretory immune system
Local conjunctival plasma cells produce mainly the anti-inflammatory IgA
SIgA performs diverse protective and antiinflammatory functions at the ocular surface
Lamina Propria Leukocytes Provide Immediate Innate Response against Invading Pathogens and can Orchestrate an Inflammatory Reac
Protective functions of conjunctival lamina propria leukocytes
HEVs Provide the Regulated Immigration of Bone-Marrow-Derived Cells into the Tissue
Conjunctival Lymphoid Follicles Have a Typical Morphology and Function
The Topographical Distribution of CALT is in the Right Place to Assist Corneal Immune Surveillance
CALT is a Part of the Complete Eye- Associated Lymphoid Tissue
Mechanisms of Conjunctival Immune regulation
CALT Is Physiologically Biased to Tolerogenic, Anti-Inflammatory Responses
Deregulation of EALT Is a Central Component of Inflammatory Ocular Surface Disease
Conjunctival Goblet Cells
Function of Conjunctival Goblet Cells
Control of Goblet Cell Proliferation and Mucin Secretion
Goblet Cell Proliferation
Goblet Cell Mucin Secretion
Clinical Implications of Mucin Deficiency on the Ocular Surface
Ocular Cicatrical Pemphigoid
Laser In Situ Keratomileusis
How Contact Lens Wear Affects the Ocular Surface
Effects of Contact Lens Wear on the Corneal and Limbal Epithelium
Alteration of the Lens: Cornea Resurfacing Mechanism
Current Hot Topics in Contact Lens Research
Contact Lens Care Products
Contrast-Detection Threshold
Psychophysical Assessment of Vision
Spatial Frequency Channels
Contrast Sensitivity Function
Temporal Contrast Sensitivity
Control of Aqueous Humor Flow
The Significance of Aqueous Humor Flow
Measuring Aqueous Humor Flow
What is the Aqueous Humor Flow Rate
Aqueous Humor Flow is not Affected by Elevated or Decreased Intraocular Pressure
Aqueous Humor Flow Decreases Slowly with Age
Aqueous Humor Flow Changes Dramatically during Sleep
Pharmacologic Agents and Hormones
beta-Adrenergic Antagonists
alpha2-Adrenergic Agonists
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
Other Classes of Drugs and Hormones
Control of Aqueous Humor Production, the Basis of Pharmacologic Manipulation of Intraocular Pressure
Coordinating Division and Differentiation in Retinal Development
A Few Basics of Cell-Cycle Regulation
Cyclins and Cdks in Retinal Development
The Rb Family in Retinal Development
Ink4 CKIs and p19Arf in Retinal Development
Cip/Kip CKIs in Retinal Development
E2Fs in Retinal Development
Separating Rate, Birth, and Exit
Distance from Notch Predicts Birth
Birth Does Not Require Exit
Mechanisms Linking Birth to Exit
Etiology and Epidemiology of Corneal NV
Mechanisms Underlying the Maintenance of Corneal Avascularity
Corneal Angiogenic Privilege: The Balance between Angiogenesis and Anti- Angiogenesis
Vascular endothelial growth factor
Basic fibroblast growth factor
Matrix metalloproteinases
Anti-Angiogenic Molecules
Endostatin and neostatins
Pigment-epithelial-derived factor
Arresten, canstatin, and tumstatin
Epithelial and EBM Dystrophies
Bowman's Layer Dystrophies
Gelatinous drop-like dystrophy
Schnyder's crystalline dystrophy
Congenital hereditary stromal dystrophy
Posterior amorphous dystrophy
Posterior Polymorphous Membrane
Congenital Hereditary Endothelial Dystrophy
Corneal Endothelium: Overview
Role of Transcription Factors
Biochemistry and Metabolism
Glucose and Energy Metabolism
Cell Division and Replenishment
Cytokines and Immune Privilege
Proteins Synthesized for External Transport
The Role of the Corneal Endothelium in Deturgescence
The Biochemistry of Active Deturgescence
The Physiological Control of Active Deturgescence
Genetic Diseases of the Corneal Endothelium
Fuchs' Endothelial Dystrophy
Related Posterior Membrane Dystrophies
Corneal Epithelium: Cell Biology and Basic Science
The Corneal Epithelium Has Vital Functions in Vision
The Apical Squames Possess Specializations to Promote Tear Film Spreading
The Epithelial Basal Cells Adhere to the Underlying Basement Membrane via tight Adhesive Junctions called Hemidesmosomes
Bowman's Layer Is an Acellular Zone Located Immediately under the Corneal Epithelial Basement Membrane
The Collagen- and Proteoglycan-Rich Corneal Stroma with Its Stromal Cells, Descemet's Membrane, and the Corneal Endothelial Cel
Corneal Epithelium: Response to Infection
Basic Structure and Function
TLRs and TLR-Related Molecules
Innervation of the Corneal Epithelium
Vasoactive intestinal peptide
Corneal Epithelium: Transport and Permeability
Corneal Hydration Control and Transparency
Importance of Transport Mechanisms to Epithelial Function
Primary and Secondary Ionic Transport Mechanisms
Coupling of Ionic Transport Mechanisms to Stromal Deturgescence
Other Transport Mechanisms
Receptor-Mediated Control of Corneal Epithelial Ionic Transport Functions
Cell-Volume Control and Epithelial Renewal
Ca2+ Channel and Pump Activity
K+, Cl-, and Na+ Channels
Corneal Epithelium: Wound Healing Junctions, Attachment to Stroma Receptors, Matrix Metalloproteinases, Intracellular Communica
Corneal Epithelial Wound Healing: Introduction
Corneal Epithelial Wound Healing: Phases of Wound Healing Process
Corneal Epithelial Wound Healing: Cell-Cell and Cell-Matrix Junctions
Cell-Cell Junctions: Gap Junctions
Cell-Cell Junctions: Tight Junctions
Cell-Cell Junctions: Adherins Junctions
Cell-Cell Junctions: Desmosomes
Cell-Matrix Junctions: Hemidesmosomes and Adhesion Complexes
Secreted Factors Involved in Corneal Epithelial Wound Healing
Matrix Metalloproteinases
Corneal Epithelial Wound Healing: Conclusion
Corneal Imaging: Clinical
Applications in Pathology
Origins of Corneal Nerves
Architecture of the Corneal Innervation
Stromal and Subepithelial Plexuses
Intraepithelial Nerve Terminals
Corneal Nerve Neurochemistry
Corneal Nerve Regeneration after Ocular Surgery
Mechanisms of Nerve Regrowth
Functional Properties of Corneal Sensory Receptors
Response of Corneal Receptors to Local Inflammation
Effects of Injury on Corneal Nerves
Sensitivity of the Intact Cornea
Sensitivity of the Injured Cornea
TGF-beta signaling pathways
Suppressing or amplifying factors
Bone marrow-derived stem cells
Three Phases of Corneal Wound Healing
Inflammatory phase (lasts up to 2-4weeks after injury)
Active wound-healing phase (lasts up to 4-6months after injury)
Remodeling phase (occurs from 4-6months to 3-4years after injury)
Termination of the fibrotic repair response (about 3-4years after injury)
Currently Available Scar-Reducing Therapies
Emerging Scar-Reducing Therapies
Stromal Extracellular Matrix
Epithelial Basement Membrane
Epithelial staining patterns
Epithelial iron deposition
Thygeson's punctate keratitis
Epithelial basement membrane dystrophy
Subepithelial infiltrates
Descemet's copper deposition
Pseudophakic bullous keratopathy
Surgical Intervention of Epithelial Disease
Disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid chelation
Limbal stem cell transplant
Phototherapeutic keratectomy
Surgical Intervention of Stromal Disease
Anterior lamellar keratoplasty
Corneal laceration repair
Surgical Intervention of Endothelial Disease
Descements Stripping Automated Endothelial Keratoplasty
Cranial Nerves and Autonomic Innervation in the Orbit
Complex Innervation Patterns Are Present in the Orbit
The Optic Nerve or Cranial Nerve II
Trigeminal Nerve or Cranial Nerve V
Ophthalmic Division of the Trigeminal Nerve
Sensory root of the ciliary ganglion
Posterior ethmoidal nerve
Maxillary Division of the Trigeminal Nerve
The Oculomotor Nerve or Cranial Nerve III
The Trochlear Nerve or Cranial Nerve IV
The Abducens Nerve or Cranial Nerve VI
Autonomic Nervous System Contributions to Orbital Innervation
Parasympathetic Innervation in the Orbit
Parasympathetic innervation within the oculomotor nerve
Parasympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland
Sympathetic Innervation in the Orbit
The Cytoskeletal Network of the Trabecular Meshwork
Actomyosin System in the Trabecular Outflow Route
Trabecular Outflow Enhancement Following Actomyosin Inhibition
Disruption of Microfilaments
TM Contractility Inhibition
Broad specificity protein kinase inhibitors (H-7)
Rho-kinase inhibitors (Y-27632, Y39983, HA-1077,H-1152, and INS117548)
Myosin II inhibitors (blebbistatin)
Actomyosin-Modulating Gene Therapy
Significance of Actomyosin Inhibitionin Glaucoma Therapy
Guide to use of the Encyclopedia
Defense Mechanisms of Tears and Ocular Surface
Defense Mechanisms of Tears
Defense Mechanisms of the Ocular Surface Epithelia
Mechanical/Physical Defenses
Other Contributions to Ocular Surface Epithelial Defense
Developmental Anatomy of the Retinal and Choroidal Vasculature
Choroidal Vascular Network
The Development of the Aqueous Humor Outflow Pathway
Ocular Mesenchyme and Development of the Chamber Angle
Anterior Segment Dygenesis
Anterior Segment Dysgenesis and Glaucoma
Primary Congenital Glaucoma
Development of the Retinal Vasculature
An Overview of Human Adult Retinal Vasculature
Vasculature of the Primordial Retina
Formation of the Human Retinal Vasculature Takes Place Through Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis
Vasculogenesis: Vascular formation through transformation from VPCs
Lack of Involvement of VEGF in Early Stages of Vascularization
Angiogenic and anti-angiogenic factors
Cell-Cell Interactions in the Formation of the Human Retinal Vasculature
Muumlller cell-endothelial cell interactions
Pericyte-endothelial cell interactions: Vessel stability
Vascularization and the Health of the Eye
Differentiation and Morphogenesis of Extraocular Muscles
Origins of Extraocular Muscles
Determination of Eye Muscle Precursors
Molecular Signatures and Muscle Differentiation
Drug Delivery to Cornea and Conjunctiva: Esterase- and Protease- Directed Prodrug Design
Topical Ocular Drug Delivery
Role of Cornea in Topical Drug Delivery
Role of Conjunctiva in Ocular Drug Delivery
Transconjunctival Pathway
Dry Eye: An Immune-Based Inflammation
Dry Eye Syndrome in Peri- and Post- menopausal Women
Patients on Anti-androgen Therapy
Clinical Features of Dry Eye
Ocular surface neuropathy in dry eye
How We Secrete Normal Tears
The Lacrimal Functional Unit
The general role of the LFU in homeostasis and disease
Events on the Ocular Surface
Environmental Impact on the Ocular Surface
Afferent arm of the immune response: immunoregulation
Efferent arm of the immune response: immunoregulation
Afferent arm of the immune response during autoimmune-based inflammation
Efferent arm of the immune response during autoimmune-based inflammation
Past, Future, and Current Therapies
Dynamic Immunoregulatory Processes that Sustain Immune Privilege in the Eye
Sympathetic Nervous System and ACAID
What is the Relevance of ACAID
Vitreous Cavity-Associated Immune Deviation
Ocular Regulatory Cells Induced In Situ
Embryology and Early Patterning
Proximo-Distal Patterning of the Optic Vesicle
Specification of the RPE and NR
Dorso-Ventral Patterning of the Optic Cup
The Epidemiology of Cataract
Cataract Classification Systems: Characterization of Phenotype
Distribution of Different Lens Opacity Types in Different Racial Groups or Populations
Risk Factors for Cataract
Chronic Ultraviolet Light Exposure
Cataract as a Predictor of Mortality
Cataract Surgery and Outcomes
General Opsin Structure and Function
Type I and Type II Opsins
Major Type II Opsin Classes
Retinal G-Protein Receptor/Go
Molecular Basis of Wavelength Sensitivity
Opsin and Modes of Phototransduction Evolution
Extraocular Muscles: Extraocular Muscle Anatomy
Gross Anatomy of the EOM within the Orbit
Histological Anatomy of the EOMs
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
Myosin Isoform Complexity in the EOM
Nonuniform Expression of MyHC Isoforms along the Muscle Length
Other Molecules Heterogeneously Expressed
Continuous Remodeling in Normal Adult EOM
Extraocular Muscles: Extraocular Muscle Involvement in Disease
The EOMs Are Selectively Spared in Muscular Dystrophies
The EOMs Are Spared in Motor Neuron Disease
The EOMs Are Selectively Affected in the Miller Fisher Syndrome
The EOMs Are Frequently Involved in Myasthenia Gravis
The EOMs Are Frequently Involved in Mitochondrial Myopathies
The EOMs Are Involved in Oculopharyngeal Dystrophy
Extraocular Muscles: Extraocular Muscle Metabolism
Insights from Gene Expression Profiling
Lactate: An Oxidizable Substrate for the Extraocular Muscle
Creatine Kinase, the Missing ATP Buffer in the Extraocular Muscle
Mitochondrial Content in the Extraocular Muscles
Mitochondria as Calcium Sinks in the Extraocular Muscle
Are Extraocular Muscle Mitochondria Different
Matching Mitochondrial Capacity to Contractile Function
Matching Energy Supply to Demand
Extraocular Muscles: Functional Assessment in the Clinic
Ocular Motility Assessment in the Clinic
Clinical Treatment for Primary Eye Motility Disorders
Extraocular Muscles: Proprioception and Proprioceptors
Occurrence, Distribution, and Number of Muscle Spindles
Structure of Muscle Spindles
Function of Muscle Spindles
Occurrence, Distribution, and Number of Golgi Tendon Organs
Structure of Golgi Tendon Organs
Function of Golgi Tendon Organs
Occurrence, Distribution, and Number of Palisade Endings
Structure of Palisade Endings
Molecular Characteristics of Palisade Endings
Function of Palisade Endings
Eye-Field Transcription Factors
Discovery and Structural Features of Eye- Field Transcription Factors
The EFTFs are Expressed during and are Required for Normal Eye Formation
The EFTFs Form a Self-Sustaining Feedback Network
The Coordinated Expression of EFTFs is Sufficient for Eye Formation
Eyelid Anatomy and the Pathophysiology of Blinking
Organization of the Eyelid System
Modifiability of the Blink System
Benign Essential Blepharospasm and Hemifacial Spasm
The Fibrillar Extracellular Matrix of the Trabecular Meshwork
Collagen: Structure and Localization
Fibronectin: Structure and Localization
Factors that Affect Collagen and Fibronectin Expression and Assembly into the ECM
Collagen and Fibronectin Receptors
Summary and Future Perspectives
Fish Retinomotor Movements*
Mechanisms of Force Production for Retinomotor Movements
Force Production for Photoreceptor Elongation and Contraction
The RPE Cytoskeleton and Force Production for Pigment Granule Dispersion and Aggregation
Intracellular Regulation of Retinomotor Movements: The Role of Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate
Regulation of Photoreceptor Retinomotor Movements by Paracrine Messenger
Regulation of Retinomotor Movements in RPE Cells by Paracrine Messengers
Functions and Significance of Retinomotor Movements
Formation and Regression of the Primary Vitreous and Hyaloid Vascular System
The Anatomy of the Temporary Ocular Vessels
Development of the Hyaloid Vessels
Development of the TVL and PM Is Dependent on VEGF Signaling
Regression of the Temporary Ocular Vessels Is Macrophage Dependent
The Wnt Signaling Pathway
Wnt7b Is a Macrophage Ligand Critical for Hyaloid Vessel Regression
The Angiopoietin and Wnt Pathways Integrate to Regulate Hyaloid Regression
Fzd4 and Norrin in Hyaloid Regression
Collagen 18 and Endostatin in Hyaloid Regression
The Arf Tumor Suppressor and PHPV
Functional Morphology of the Trabecular Meshwork*
The Juxtacanalicular Tissue
Contractile Influence on Trabecular Outflow
Fundamentals of Stereopsis
Stereograms and Binocular Viewing
The Empirical Study of Stereopsis: Thresholds and Upper Limits
Stereopsis at Large Disparities
The Mechanisms of Fine and Coarse Disparity Processing
The Depth of Moving Objects
The Neural Basis of Stereopsis
GABA Receptors in the Retina
Plasma Membrane Transporters
Amacrine Cells and Ganglion Cells
Ganglion Cell Development: Early Steps/Fate
Retinal Ganglion Cell Formation
Atoh7/Ath5 Function is Critical for RGC Development
Integrated Regulation of Atoh7/Ath5 Retinal Expression
Atoh7/Ath5 Activates Pou4f/Brn3 Expression in RGCs
Pou4f2/Brn3b Controls Numerous RGC Processes
Islet1 Acts Parallel to Pou4f2 During RGC Development
Gene Therapy for the Cornea, Conjunctiva, and Lacrimal Gland
Corneal Gene Therapy Methods
Use of Gene Therapy to Treat Corneal Diseases
Corneal Neovascularization
Lacrimal Gland Gene Therapy
Genetic Dissection of Invertebrate Phototransduction
The Drosophila Phototransduction Cascade
Genetic Screens for Mutants Defective in Phototransduction Proteins
The Photochemical Cycle and the Mechanism Underlying Termination of M Activity
Coupling of Photoexcited R to Inositol Phospholipid Hydrolysis
Light-Activated Gq Protein
The trp Mutant and the Discovery of the TRP Channel
Biophysical Properties of the TRP Channel
Lipids Activate the Light-Sensitive Channels in the Dark
Organization in a Supramolecular Signaling Complex via the Scaffold Protein Inactivation No Afterpotential D
The Photoreceptor Cells Are Sensitive to Single Photons
Genetics of Age-Related Cataract
Age-Related Cataract Phenotypes
Genetic Epidemiology of Age-Related Cataracts
Genes Associated with Age-Related Cataract
Summary and Future Prospects
Genetics of Congenital Cataract
Genetic Causes of Congenital Cataract
Isolated Congenital Cataract
Phenotype-Genotype Correlations
Specific Genes Implicated in Congenital Cataracts
Beaded Filament-Specific Proteins
Current State of Knowledge and Future
The Genetics of Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma: A Review*
POAG as a Complex Inherited Disorder
Genetic Approaches to Gene Identification
Chromosomal Loci for POAG
Gene Variants Associated with POAG
POAG Genetics and the Future
Glutamate Receptors in Retina
Glutamate Receptor Pharmacology
Glutamate Receptors in Distal Retina
The ON Bipolar Cell Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor
The OFF Bipolar Cell AMPA and Kainate Receptors
Glutamatergic Feedback to Photoreceptors
Modulation of Glutamate Receptors
Glutamate Receptors in Inner Retina
The Mystery of the NMDA Receptors
Glutamate Receptor Diversity at the Synapse
Calcium-Permeable AMPA Receptors
Pre- and Postsynaptic Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors
Hemangiogenesis versus Lymphangiogenesis
Structure and Function of the Lymphatic System
Short Historical Perspective on Studying the Lymphatic System
Lymphangiogenesis in Development
Corneal Lymphangiogenesis
Hereditary Vitreoretinopathies
Classification of the Hereditary Vitreoretinopathies
Clinical Features of the Hereditary Vitreoretinopathies
Vitreoretinopathies Associated with Skeletal Abnormalities
Stickler syndrome (OMIM #108300, #604841, and #184840)
Kniest dysplasia (OMIM #156550)
Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia congenital (OMIM #183900)
Marshall syndrome (OMIM #154780)
Knobloch syndrome (OMIM #267750)
Marfan syndrome (OMIM #154700)
Vitreoretinopathies Associated with Progressive Retinal Dysfunction
Wagner syndrome (OMIM #143200)
Goldmann-Favre syndrome/enhanced S-cone dystrophy (OMIM #268100)
Vitreoretinopathies Associated with Abnormal Retinal Vasculature
Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy (OMIM #133780, #601813, and #305390)
Autosomal dominant vitreochoroidopathy (OMIM #193220)
Vitreoretinopathy Associated with Corneal Changes
Snowflake vitreoretinal degeneration (OMIM #193230)
Molecular Genetics of the Hereditary Vitreoretinopathies
Histogenesis, Cell Fate, and Signaling Factors
The Hedgehog Signaling Pathway
Transforming Growth Factor-beta
Signaling Molecules and Photoreceptor Development
Existence and Distribution of Hyalocytes
Morphological Characteristics of Hyalocytes
Role of Hyalocytes During Development
Role of Hyalocytes Under Physiological Conditions
Functional Properties of Hyalocytes in Vitreoretinal Interface Diseases
Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy and Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy
Formation of proliferative membranes
Cicatricial contraction of the proliferative membrane
Idiopathic Epiretinal Membrane and Macular Hole
Conclusion and Perspective
Definition and Classifications of Hyperopia
Normal Time Course of Hyperopia
Clinical Presentations of Hyperopia
Risks of Uncorrected Hyperopia
Importance of Early Detection of Significant Hyperopia
Examination Techniques of Hyperopia
Anterior Segment Optical Coherence Tomography
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Immunobiology of Acanthamoeba Keratitis
Anatomical and Physiological Barriers to Corneal Infections with Acanthamoeba
Innate Immune System and Resistance to Acanthamoeba Infections
Role of Macrophages in the Resistance to Acanthamoeba Infections
Role of Neutrophils in the Resistance to Acanthamoeba Infections
Humoral Factors of the Innate Immune System that Affect Resistance to Acanthamoeba Infections
Adaptive Immune System and Resistance to Acanthamoeba Infections
Role of the Mucosal Immune System in Resistance to AK
Evading the Adaptive Immune Response
Anti-Disease Vaccine for AK
Immunobiology of Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Epidemiology and Clinical Findings of Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Genetics of AMD and Evidence for a Role of Inflammation in the Pathogenesis of AMD
Immunobiology of Uveal Melanoma
Anti-Tumor Immune Responses
Effect of HLA Expression on the Progression of Uveal Melanomas
Indoleamine 2,3 Dioxygenase
Programmed Death-1 Ligand
Complement Regulatory Proteins
Resistance to Perforin-Mediated Cytolysis
Overcoming the Immune Privilege of Uveal Melanomas
The Immunological Aspects of Aqueous Humor Turnover
Aqueous Humor and the Immune Privilege of the Eye
The AqH Combines Immune Modulation and Angiogenic Privilege
alpha-Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone
Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide
Transforming Growth Factor beta
Calcitonin Gene-Related peptide
Immunopathogenesis of Experimental Uveitic Diseases
Uveitis: The Disease and Its Experimental Models
Central Tolerance: Retina-Specific Antigens and the Thymus
Peripheral Tolerance and the Double-Edged Sword of Immune Privilege
Effector T Cells in Uveitis: Activation and Activity
Regulatory T Cells and Uveitis
Non-Treg Cells in Regulation of Uveitis
Immunopathogenesis of HSV Keratitis
Natural History of Herpes Stromal Keratitis
Eradication of Replicating HSV-1 from the Corneal Epithelium
HSV-1 Colonization of Sensory Ganglia
Cytokines and Their Role in HSK
Antigen-Presenting Cells in HSK
Chemokine Involvement in HSK
Angiogenesis in HSV-1 Stromal Keratitis
Models of HSK Pathogenesis
Epidemiology and Pathogenesis of Human HSK
Management of Human HSV Stromal Keratitis and Implications on Pathogenesis
Immunopathogenesis of Onchocerciasis (River Blindness)
The Role of Endosymbiotic Wolbachia Bacteria in Onchocerciasis
Role of Wolbachia in Pathogenesis - Evidence from Infected Individuals
The Role of Wolbachia in the Pathogenesis of ocular onchocerciasis - Lessons from the Murine Model of O. volvulus/Wolbach
Wolbachia and TLRs in the Cornea
Identification of a Wolbachia TLR2/TLR6 Ligand
Immunopathogenesis of Pseudomonas Keratitis
PMN, Cytokines, and Chemokines
Immunosuppressive and Anti-Inflammatory Molecules that Maintain Immune Privilege of the Eye
Immunosuppression and Anti- Inflammatory Activity in Aqueous Humor
The Immunoregulatory and Immunosuppressive Factors of The Immune-Privileged Eye
Transforming Growth Factor-Beta
Alpha-Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone
Application of the Lessons of Immune Privilege
Inflammation of the Conjunctiva
The Conjunctiva and Cornea
Tear Fluid: A Reservoir of Inflammatory Cells and Modulators
Allergic Reactions in the Conjunctiva
Infection of the Conjunctiva or Cornea
Tear Fluid as a Diagnostic Indicator of Inflammation
Connection of the Conjunctiva and Cornea via Tear Fluid
Information Processing: Amacrine Cells
AC Classification, Form, and Patterns
AC Synapses and Neurochemistry
ACs and Signal-Processing Fundamentals
gamma ACs of the Rod Pathway
Gly ACs of the Rod Pathway
Small gamma ACs of the Primate Midget BC rarr GC Pathway
gamma ACs of the Directionally Selective GC pathway
Information Processing: Bipolar Cells
Information Processing: Contrast Sensitivity
Contrast Processing and Adaptation
The Spatial Receptive Field
The Temporal Receptive Field
Receptive Field Properties Explain Contrast Sensitivity Functions
Disrupting Specific Retinal Pathways Alters Perceptual Contrast Sensitivity in Selective Ways
Physical Limits to Contrast Sensitivity
Information Processing: Direction Sensitivity
Physiological Functions of DSGCs
Synaptic Circuitry of DSGCs
Direction-Selective Responses in SAC Processes
Integration of Multiple Cooperative Mechanisms for Direction Selectivity
Information Processing: Ganglion Cells
Principles of Ganglion Cell Processing
Center-Surround Receptive Fields
Stimulus Features that Trigger Ganglion Cell Activity
Ganglion Cells as Spatiotemporal Filters
Ganglion Cells as Specific Feature Detectors
Direction-selective (DS) ganglion cells
Object motion sensitive (OMS) ganglion cells
Approach-sensitive ganglion cells
Information Processing: Horizontal Cells
Synaptic Interactions and Gap-Junction Coupling of Horizontal Cell Subclasses
Ionic Conductances of Horizontal Cells and the Response to Light
Cellular Mechanisms of Horizontal Cell Neurotransmission
Horizontal Cell Feedback and Feed-Forward
Feed-Forward onto Bipolar Cell Dendrites
Feedback onto Photoreceptor Terminals
Ephaptic Transmission between Horizontal Cells and Photoreceptor Terminals
Proton Mediation of Horizontal Cell Feedback
Functional Roles of Horizontal Cells
Gain Control of Synapses in the Outer Retina
Spatial and Temporal Processing
Information Processing in the Retina
The Outer Retina, Gain and Level Adjustment
Bifurcation of the Visual Pathways into ON and OFF streams
Horizontal Cell Synaptic Interactions
Horizontal Cells and Local Gain Control
Interactions at the Inner Retina: Contrast Gain
General Organizational Principles
Lateral Interactions are Concatenated
Mutual Antagonism is a Form of Amplification
Redundant Feedforward and Feedback Interactions
Interaction between the Two Complementary Visual Streams in the Visual System
Inner Retinal Processing: Circuitry for Feature Extraction
Amacrine Cell Morphological Types
Specific Ganglion Cell Circuitries
Functions of AII Amacrine Cells
Information Processing: Retinal Adaptation
Characteristics of Light Adaptation
Mechanisms and Sites of Light Adaptation
Characteristics of Dark Adaptation
Mechanisms of Dark Adaptation
Inherited Optic Neuropathies
Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy
Dominant Optic Atrophy (DOA)
Other Inherited Conditions with Optic Atrophy
Injury and Repair: Light Damage
Role of Rhodopsin Activation in Light Damage
Mechanisms of Photic Injury: From Gene Expression to the Molecular Pathway
Role of Oxidant Stress in Light Damage
Role of Inflammation in Light Damage
Identification of Two Nonredundant Mechanisms of Endogenous Protection of Photoreceptors
Rhodopsin-Activated Endogenous Protection
Identification of Mechanisms for Chronic Light Stress-Induced Endogenous Protection
Role of Leukemia Inhibitory Factor
Injury and Repair: Neovascularization
Animal Models of NV after Laser- Induced Injury
Acute Responses to Retinal Injury
Blood-Retina Barrier Breakdown
Acute Release of Cytokines
Injury-Induced Complement Activation
Other Angiogenic Mediators in the Retinal Response to Injury
Modulation of the Extracellular Matrix
Cellular Response in Injury-Induced NV
Other Infiltrating Cell Types
Cellular Responses to VEGF-A Receptor Binding
Injury and Repair: Prostheses
Rationale for a Prosthetic Device
Retinal Prosthetic Devices
Injury and Repair: Retinal Remodeling
Synaptogenesis and Microneuromas
Impact of Remodeling on Therapeutics
Stem/Neuroprogenitor Cell Therapy
Secondary Gene Therapies: Photosensitive Proteins
The Importance of Cone Rescue
Injury and Repair: Stem Cells and Transplantation
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
Stem Cells for Neuroprotection
Transplantation Strategies
Injury and Repair Responses: Retinal Detachment
Retinal injury and retinal detachment: A close relationship
Symptoms and signs of RD in people
Cellular Responses of the Retina to Injury
Muumlller's cells and RD: Glial scarring
Injury and Other Cell Types
Second- and Third-Order Neurons
Microglia and the Immune Response
Retinal Pigmented Epithelial cells
Innate Immune System and the Eye
Passive Innate Defense System
Anatomic and Physical Barriers
Retinal pigment epithelium
Secretory phospholipase A2
Active Innate Defense System
Pattern Recognition Receptors
Cytokines, Chemokines, and Effector Cells
Initiation and amplification
Link between Innate and Adaptive Immunity
Innate Immunity and Angiogenesis
Innate Immunity and Wound Healing
HIF-1alpha: At the Intersection of Angiogenesis and Innate Immunity
Intraocular Pressure and Damage of Optic Nerve Axons
Introduction - Intraocular Pressure as a Risk Factor for Glaucoma
Biomechanical Engineering Studies
Modulation of Glia Behavior at the Optic Nerve Head and Dysfunction of Ganglion Cell Axons
Compartmentalized Self-Destruct Pathways and the Pathology of Glaucoma
Intraretinal Circuit Formation
Organization of Retinal Circuits of Vertebrates
Formation of Retinal Synaptic Laminae
Assembly of the Vertical Pathway
Synaptogenesis in the Vertical Pathway
Assembly of Lateral Circuits
Inner Retina - Amacrine Cells
Outer Retina - Horizontal Cells
Emergence of Function - Spontaneous and Light-Evoked Activity
Ion Transport in the Ciliary Epithelium
Aqueous Humor Production: Active Transport
The Ciliary Epithelium: A Double-Layered Epithelium Forms a Functional Syncytium
The Energy for Active Transport
The Uptake of Ions at the Basolateral Membrane of the Pigmented Epithelium
The Transport from the Pigmented Epithelium to the Nonpigmented Epithelium
The Efflux of Ions across the Basolateral Membrane of the Nonpigmented Epithelium
Aquaporins of the Ciliary Epithelium
Regulation of Aqueous Humor Formation
Regulation of Na+ and Cl- Uptake by the Pigmented Epithelium
Modulation of Cl- Efflux out of the Nonpigmented Epithelium
The Regulation of the Aqueous Humor Formation at the Double-Layered Epithelium
Ionic Permeability and Currents in the Lens
The Physiology of Lens Transparency: A Unique Structure and Function
Early Views of Lens Physiology
The Lens Internal Circulation System
Key Membrane Transport Components of the Lens Circulation System
Localization of Active Transport Mechanisms to the Lens Surface
Spatially Differences in Membrane Permeability
Directing Gap Junctional Coupling to the Equator
Water Permeability and Fluid Flow
Secondary Active Transport of Nutrients
Steady-State Volume Regulation: Balancing Ion Influx and Efflux
Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
Nonarteritic Anterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
Risk Factors for Development of NA-AION
Clinical Features of NA-AION
Recurrence of NA-AION in the same eye
NA-AION and phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors
Clinical Features of GCA and A-AION
Laboratory investigations
Differentiation of A-AION from NA-AION
Steroid Therapy to Prevent Blindness in GCA
Posterior Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
Clinical Features of PION
Knock-Out Mice Models: Cornea, Conjunctiva, Eyelids and Lacrimal Gland
Tissue-specific gene ablation using Cre-LoxP system
Pitfalls of Cre-LoxP system: Cryptic Cre expression by germ cells during gametogenesis
Inducible Cre-LoxP system
Strategies of Cornea-Specific Genetic Modification: Transgenic and Knock-Out/Knock-In Mice
Identification of Ocular-Surface Tissue-Specific Promoter
Stromal keratocyte-specific promoter
Corneal-epithelium-specific promoter
Ocular-surface epithelium-specific Pax6 promoter (Pax6OS)
Ocular Surface Tissue-Specific Driver Mouse Lines
Corneal stroma-specific mouse lines
Corneal-epithelium-specific mouse lines
Ocular surface tissue-specific Pax6OS-rtTA mouse line
Roles of Growth Factors on Ocular Surface Tissue Morphogenesis during Development and Wound Healing Elucidated from Transgenic
TGFbeta Receptor Signaling Pathways during Development and Corneal Wound Healing
Role of TGFbeta2 on development
Role of TGF-beta signaling in wound healing of corneal epithelium
Role of FGF7 in Maintenance of Corneal Homeostasis
EGFR/EGF, TGFalpha Signaling Pathways on Eyelids Morphogenesis
Conclusion: The Clinical Relevance of Tet-ON Mouse Models in Elucidating Pathophysiology of Ocular Surfaces Diseases
Lacrimal Gland Hormone Regulation
Gender-Related Dimorphisms
Estradiol and Progesterone
Exocrine Products and Autocrine/ Intracrine and Paracrine Mediators
Influences of Prolactin, Estradiol, and Progesterone during Pregnancy
Reproductive Hormone Influences on Other Mucosal Immune System Tissues
Counterpoises between Contradictory Signals
Anatomy of the Main Lacrimal Gland
Cell Types within the Lacrimal Gland
Bone-marrow-derived Cell Population
Innervation of the Lacrimal Gland
Contents of Lacrimal Fluid
Mechanisms of Protein Secretion in the Lacrimal Gland
Mechanisms and Regulation of Electrolyte and Water Secretion by the Lacrimal Gland
Lacrimal Gland Signaling: Neural
Anatomy of the Lacrimal Gland
Neural Control of Lacrimal Gland Secretion
Signal Transduction Pathways Activated in the Lacrimal Gland
Cholinergic Agonist-Activated Signal Transduction Pathways
PLC-coupled signaling pathway
PLD-coupled signaling pathway
MAPK-coupled signaling pathway
VIP-Activated Signal Transduction Pathways
Adenylate cyclase-coupled signaling pathway
MAPK-coupled signaling pathway
alpha1-Adrenergic Agonist-Activated Signal Transduction Pathways
Ca2+- and PKC-coupled signaling pathways
MAPK-coupled signaling pathway
NO-coupled signaling pathway
Lens Determination and Induction
The Lens Is One Type of Light-Focusing Structure
Lens Induction: An Auspicious Beginning
The Developmental Biology of Lens Formation
The Lens Undergoes Complex Morphogenesis
Is There a Common Placodal Precursor Domain
Genetic Regulation of Lens Development
Signaling Pathways Involved in Lens Induction and Development
Bone Morphogenetic Protein
Lens Fiber Cell Differentiation
Primary Fiber Cell Differentiation
The Lens is a Stratified Epithelium
Secondary Fiber Cell Differentiation
Experimental Approaches to Study Lens Fiber Cell Differentiation
Regulation of Fiber Cell Differentiation
Lens Structure and Importance of Intercellular Communication for Lens Function
Structure and Components of Gap Junctions
Distribution of Connexins within the Lens
Physiology and Pharmacology of Gap Junction-Mediated Intercellular Communication
Connexin Functions beyond Intercellular Communication
Regulation of Connexin Functions by Protein Modification
Connexins and Lens Pathologies
Cataracts in Mice with Genetically Manipulated Connexin Levels
Cataracts due to Connexin Mutations
Cataract-Causing Insults and Damage to Lens Connexins
A General Background of Lens Regeneration
The Process of Transdifferentiation and Lens Regeneration
Gene Expression and Induction of Lens Regeneration
Gene Regulation in the Induction of Lens Regeneration
Large-Scale Expression Studies
MicroRNA Regulation During Lens Regeneration
Comparison with the Axolotl
Lids: Anatomy, Pathophysiology, Mucocutaneous Junction
Common Malignant Eyelid Tumors
Inflammatory and Infectious Disorders of the Lids
Light-Driven Translocation of Signaling Proteins in Vertebrate Photoreceptors
Light Dependency of Protein Translocation
Hypotheses on the Functional Roles of Protein Translocation
What Is the Mode of Protein Translocation: Active Transport or Diffusion
Specific Mechanisms of Protein Translocation
Proteins' Return in the Dark
Limulus Eyes and Their Circadian Regulation
Organization of the Limulus Visual System
Circadian Organization of the Limulus Visual System
Effects of the Clock on Limulus Eyes
Biochemical Processes Mediating Clock Effects on Limulus Eyes
Octopamine and the Activation of a cAMP Cascade
Clock-Driven Protein Phosphorylation
Guide to use of the Encyclopedia
Diagnosis of Macular Edema
Clinical Findings in Macular Edema
Clinically Significant Diabetic Macular Edema
Findings by Fluorescein Angiography
Treatment of Macular Edema
Results of Other Clinical Trials
Anti-VEGF Therapies and Macular Edema
Meibomian Glands and Lipid Layer
The Lipid Layer of the Tear Film
Composition of Meibomian Lipids
Meibomian Lipid Turnover and Synthesis
Pathology of the Meibomian Gland
Contact Lenses and the Lipid Layer
Microvillar and Ciliary Photoreceptors in Molluskan Eyes
Microvillar (Rhabdomeric) Photoreceptors
Photopigment, G Protein, and Arrestin
Light-Dependent Ion Channels
Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms in Allergic Conjunctivitis
Seasonal Allergic Conjunctivitis
Perennial Allergic Conjunctivitis
Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis
Atopic Keratoconjunctivitis
Cellular Mechanisms in Ocular Allergy
Conjunctival Eosinophils and Neutrophils
Conjunctival Epithelial Cells
Costimulatory Molecules in Ocular Allergy
Cytokines and Chemokines in Ocular Allergy
Molecular Composition of the Vitreous and Aging Changes
Molecular Composition of the Vitreous
Synthesis of vitreous collagen
NC Proteins and Glycoproteins
Other proteins and glycoproteins
Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans
Supramolecular Organization of the Vitreous
Aging Changes that Predispose to PVD
Age-Related Vitreous Liquefaction
Weakening of the Vitreoretinal Adhesion
Molecular Genetics of Congenital and Juvenile Glaucoma
Major Subtypes of Glaucoma
Prevalence and Clinical Features of JOAG and CG
Molecular Genetics of JOAG: Mapped Loci and Identified Candidates
Myocilin (MYOC) as a Primary Candidate for JOAG
Analysis of Mutations and Polymorphisms Associated with JOAG in MYOC
Molecular Genetics of CG: Mapped Loci and Identified Candidates
Cytochrome P450 1B1 (CYP1B1) as a Primary Candidate for CG
Analysis of Mutations Associated with CG in CYP1B1
Genetic Overlap between CG and Juvenile Glaucoma (JOAG)
Involvement of CYP1B1 in JOAG
Involvement of MYOC in CG
Digenic Inheritance in Glaucoma
Developmental Anomalies and Glaucoma
Molecular Mechanisms of Angiostasis
Physiological and Biological Functions of Type IV Collagen
Generation of Angiostatic Domains from Type IV Collagen and Their Signaling Mechanisms
Different Integrins Mediated Angiostatic Signaling by Tumstatin
Different Integrins Mediated Angiostatic Signaling by Canstatin
Distinct Integrin-Mediated Angiostatic Signaling by Arresten
Distinct Integrin-Mediated Angiostatic Signaling by alpha6(IV)NC1
Conclusions and Perspectives
Morphology of Interneurons: Amacrine Cells
Morphology of Interneurons: Bipolar Cells
Bipolar Cell Types of the Mammalian Retina
Midget Bipolar Cells of the Primate Retina
Clomeleon-labeled ganglion cells, amacrine cells and bipolar cells
Cone Bipolar Cells with Rod Input
Immunocytochemical Markers and Transgenic Mouse Lines
Synaptic Contacts of Bipolar Cells in the Inner Plexiform Layer
Costratification of Pre- and Postsynaptic Partners in the Inner Plexiform Layer
Bipolar Cells of Nonmammalian Vertebrates
Color-Coded Bipolar Cells in the Turtle Retina
Morphology of Interneurons: Horizontal Cells
General Morphology and Connectivity
Population Properties and Gap-Junctional Coupling
Diversity of Morphology and Connectivity across Species
Species with Selective Cone Contacts
Conclusions and Open Questions
Morphology of Interneurons: Interplexiform Cells
Morphology of Dopaminergic Interplexiform Neurons
Morphology and Distribution
Synaptic Input to DA Neurons
Input from bipolar cells and amacrine cells
Input from intrinsically photoreceptive ganglion cells
Input from centrifugal fibers
Physiology of Dopaminergic Interplexiform Neurons
Dopamine Reconfigures Retinal Circuits
Light Drives Interplexiform Neurons via Both Conventional and Novel Pathways
IPCs Signal Time of Day from the Retinal Clock
DA Neurons and Retinal Degenerative Disease
Human Health Implications of the Retinal Clock
Discovery of the Glaucoma-Associated Myocilin Gene
MYOC Gene to Myocilin Protein
Myocilin Expression and Localization
How Does Myocilin Cause Glaucoma
Glaucoma-Associated Mutant Myocilin
Definition of Myopia: Health and Economic Implications
Natural History of Myopia
Structural Correlates, Molecular and Anatomical Changes in Myopia
Classifications of Myopia
Correction and Prevention: Clinical Management of Myopia
Positive Additions for Nearwork
Vision Therapy and Biofeedback Training
Pharmacological Treatment
Correction and Prevention: Clinical Management of Myopia
Neuroendocrine Properties of the Ciliary Epithelium
Neuroendocrine Genotype of the CE
Neuropeptides and Peptide-Hormones of the CE
Potential Neuroendocrine-Immune Circuitry in the Anterior Segment of the Eye
Potential Glutamatergic and Gamma- Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) Systems in the CE
Peptide Receptor Expression
Peptide-Binding Sites and Localization
Peptide Receptor messenger RNAs
Peptide Receptor Localization
Ca2+ Imaging and Ion Channel Physiology
Electroretinogram Recording
Peptide Influence on Transmitter Release
Neuropeptides: Localization
Bioassays and Radioimmunoassays
Peptide Receptor Expression
Peptide-Binding Sites and Localization
Peptide Receptor Localization
Peptide Receptor Localization
Neurotransmitters and Receptors: Dopamine
Localization of Dopamine Neurons in the Retina
Regulation of Dopamine Neuronal Activity
Dopamine Neuronal Activity Is Coupled to Dopamine Synthesis and Metabolism
Circadian Control of Dopamine Release and Metabolism
Functions of Dopamine in the Retina
Retinal Pigment Epithelium
Role of Dopamine in Photopic Visual Processing
Dopamine and Circadian Organization of the Retina
Dopamine, Retinal Development, Ocular growth, and Myopia
Neurotransmitters and Receptors: Melatonin Receptors
Sites of Retinal Melatonin Synthesis
Melatonin Synthesis by Photoreceptors
Phylogenetic Relationships between Photoreceptors and Pinealocytes
Classification of Melatonin Receptors
Sites of Melatonin Receptors in the Retina
Melatonin Receptors in Photoreceptor Cells
Melatonin Receptors in RPE
Melatonin Receptors in Inner Retinal Neurons
Effects of Melatonin on Retinal Function
Modulation of Neurotransmitter Release
Modulation of Photoreceptor Function
Noninvasive Testing Methods: Multifocal Electrophysiology
Recording of Multifocal Data
Patient Positioning and Data Collection
Data Analysis and Presentation
How Long Does the Test Take
Some Examples from the Retina Clinic
Central Serous Retinopathy
Hydroxychloroquine Retinopathy
Juvenile X-Linked Retinoschisis
Detecting Small Central Dysfunction
Applications to Neuro-Ophthalmology and.Glaucoma
The mfVECP in Optic Neuritis
Comparison of the mfVEP and the mfERG in Optic Neuropathies and Glaucoma
Comparison of the mfVEP and the ONHC of the mfERG in an Asymmetric Glaucoma Patient
Patient with Unknown Vision Loss
Normal Age-Related Changes: Crystallin Modifications, Lens Hardening
Characterization of Lens Posttranslational Modifications
Summary of Early PTM Studies
Review of Identified and Localized Lens.PTMs
Acetylation and Carbamylation
Other Lysine and Arginine Modifications
Functional Significance of Lens PTMs
Cortical Cataract and Nuclear Cataract
Cataract is Not the Same as Aging
Features that Distinguish ARNC from Normal Aging
A Model for ARNC: The Lens Center is an Enzyme-Free Region
Uncoupling the Center from the Lens Cortex
Unfolding Crystallins and the Importance of Alpha Crystallin
Another Impact of the Lens Barrier
Could Sunlight Play a Role in ARNC
The Resurrection of Sunlight
What is the Primary Oxidant Involved in ARNC
Issues and Questions for the Future
Could Lens Components Other than Crystallins be Involved
Why Do Some People in India Develop ARNC Much Earlier than Those in Western Nations
Is ARNC Just a Problem that is Lens Specific
Ocular Media Clarity and Straylight
Forward and Backward Scatter
Relation between Straylight and Other Test Outcomes
Straylight and Slit-Lamp-Based Examination
Straylight and Patient Complaints
Frequently Asked Questions
What Are the Causes of Retinal Straylight
Important causes of increased retinal straylight
What is the Reliability of a Straylight Measurement
Does Pupil Size Affect the Straylight Measurement
Surface-associated mucins
Biosynthesis and Turnover
Anchoring to the Ocular Surface
Physical and Chemical Barriers
Clinical Relevance and Pathology
Optical Coherence Tomography
3D Ultrahigh Resolution Retinal OCT
3D Wide-Field Choroidal OCT
Cellular Resolution Retinal OCT
Functional Retinal Imaging Using OCT
Optic Nerve: Optic Neuritis
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Optical Coherence Tomography
Neuroprotective Treatment Strategies
Orbital Bony Anatomy and Orbital Fractures
Orbital Floor (Blowout) Fracture
Zygomatic-Maxillary Complex Fractures (Tripod)
Orbital Masses and Tumors
Rare tumors of neuroectodermal origin
Benign fibro-osseous and cartilaginous lesions
Secondary Tumors of the Orbit
Neoplasia of the sinus and nasopharynx
Orbital extension of eyelid tumors
Secondary tumors arising from the conjunctiva
Orbital extension of ocular malignancies
Orbital extension of lacrimal sac tumors
Nonspecific Orbital Inflammations
Anterior and diffuse inflammation
Specific Inflammations of the Orbit
Infections - orbital cellulitis and sinusitis (microbial)
Tuberculosis and syphilis
Idiopathic sclerosing inflammation
Arteriovenous Malformations
Lymphatic and Combined Venous Lymphatic Malformations (Lymphangioma)
Orbital Soft Tissue Biomechanics
Geometry of the Orbital Structures
Contact Behavior at the Interface between Structures
Sliding at the Interface between Structures
Connective Tissue Connections
Load Cases: Muscle Contraction, Orbital Disease, Blunt Impact, etc.
Contents of the Cavernous Sinus
Clinical Correlate: Orbital Vascular Pathology
Arterial and Venous Occlusions
Cavernous Carotid Artery Aneurysm
Carotid-Cavernous Sinus Fistula
Cavernous Sinus Thrombosis
Orbital Surgical Surface Anatomy
Overview of Electrolyte and Fluid Transport Across the Conjunctiva
Bioelectric Studies on the Isolated Rabbit Conjunctiva
Electrolyte Transport Systems of the Rabbit Conjunctiva
Regulation of Epithelial Ion Transport in Rabbit Conjunctiva
Fluid Transport Studies across Isolated Rabbit Conjunctiva
Pathogenesis and Immunology of Bacterial Endophthalmitis
Exogenous Endophthalmitis
Postoperative Endophthalmitis
Bleb-Related Endophthalmitis
Post-Traumatic Endophthalmitis
Endophthalmitis Associated with Microbial Keratitis
Endogenous Endophthalmitis
Virulence Factors of Bacteria Causing Endophthalmitis
Virulence Factors of Main Pathogen
The Host Response in Endophthalmitis
Proinflammatory Cytokines
Immunosuppressive Microenvironment of the Eye
Anterior-Chamber-Associated Immune Deviation
Pathogenesis of Fungal Keratitis
Contact-Lens-Associated Fungal Keratitis
Biofilm Formation in Contact-Lens-Associated Keratitis
Keratitis Caused by Candida
Fungal Keratitis Associated with Trauma
Role of Matrix Metalloproteinases in Fungal Keratitis
Role of Innate Immunity in Fungal Keratitis
Murine Model of Aspergillus Keratitis
Pathogenesis of Uveitis in Humans
Associated with systemic disease
As part of a characteristic syndrome
Classification of Human Uveitis in the Context of Pathological Signs
Pathogenetic Mechanisms in Uveitic Disease
Tolerance and Its Dysregulation
Self-Antigens versus Foreign Antigens
Are Antigen-Specific Cells Required to Cause Damage
Pathological Retinal Angiogenesis
Promoters and Inhibitors of Angiogenesis
Promoters of Angiogenesis
Vascular endothelial growth factor
Platelet-derived growth factor
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha
Matrix metalloproteinases
Components of the complement cascade
Inhibitors of Angiogenesis
Pigment epithelium-derived factor
Complementary regulatory protein CD59
Tryptophanyl-tRNA synthase fragment
New Directions in Antiangiogenic Therapy
Penetrating Keratoplasty: Indications and Survival
Clinical Features of Corneal Graft Rejection
Pathogenesis of Rejection
Afferent Mechanisms and Components
Histocompatibility antigens
Direct and indirect alloantigen recognition
Breakdown of immune privilege
Pericytes and Microvascular Remodeling: Regulation of Retinal Angiogenesis
Retinal Microvascular Dynamics: Cell-Cell Interactions
Retinal Pericytes and Diabetes-Induced Vascular Proliferative Disorders
Pericyte Rho GTP Signaling: A Role in Pathologic Angiogenesis
Static Threshold Perimetry
Static Suprathreshold Perimetry
Standard Achromatic Perimetry
Short-Wavelength Automated Perimetry
High-Pass Resolution Perimetry (Ring Perimetry)
Frequency-Doubling Technology Perimeter
Total Deviation and Pattern Deviation Plots
Pharmacological Vitreolysis
The Role of the Vitreous in Disease
The Objectives of Pharmacological Vitreolysis
Enzyme Candidates for Vitreous Disruption
Pharmacology of Aqueous Humor Formation
Physiology of Aqueous Humor Production
Aqueous Flow Suppressants
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
beta-Adrenergic Antagonists (beta-Blockers)
Pharmacology of the Aqueous Humor Outflow
Drugs in Clinical Use That Act upon the Aqueous Humor Outflow Routes
Cholinergic Agents (Miotics)
Photopic, Mesopic and Scotopic Vision and Changes in Visual Performance
The Concept of Luminous Efficiency Function
Quality of Vision and Light Level
Spatial Acuity, Spatial Contrast Sensitivity, and Light Level
Pupil Size, Higher order Aberrations, and Light Level
Color Vision and Light Level
Photoreceptor Development: Early Steps/Fate
Photoreceptor Development
Rod and Cone Pattern in Human and Mouse Retina
Development of Cone and Rod Photoreceptors
Factors Affecting Photoreceptor Genesis
Early Stages in Photoreceptor Development
From RPC to Photoreceptor Precursor
From Cone Precursor to Cone Photoreceptor
From Rod Precursor to Rod Photoreceptor
Maturation of Photoreceptors
Current Research in Photoreceptor Development
The Photoreceptor Outer Segment as a Sensory Cilium
Turnover of the OS and Phototransduction Machinery
The Photosensitive Organelle as a Sensory Cilium
Evidence for Intraflagellar Transport in Photoreceptors
A Special Role for KIF17 in Photoreceptors
Molecular Components of Squid Visual Signal Transduction
Squid Visual Guanine Nucleotide-Binding Protein, Gq
Light-Activated Ion Channel
Desensitization of Visual Signal Transduction
Phototransduction: Adaptation in Cones
Performance of the Photopic (Cone) System
Rapid Response and Moderate Sensitivity
Light Adaptation of the Cones
Flashes on Backgrounds: Desensitization and Acceleration
Dependence of Sensitivity on Background Intensity: Weber's Law
Extremely Rapid Recovery of Cone Photocurrent
Molecular Basis of Cone Light Adaptation
Reaction Steps Underlying Rapid Recovery of the Cone's Light Response
Cone Avoidance of Saturation
Modeling of Human Cone Light Adaptation
Phototransduction: Adaptation in Rods
Vision over a Billion-Fold Range of Light Intensities
Performance of the Scotopic (Rod) System
The Purpose of Light Adaptation: Optimization of Performance
Avoidance of Saturation: Range Extension
Extraction of Contrast Information and Optimization of Response Kinetics
Light Adaptation of the Rod Photoreceptors: Range Extension, Desensitization, and Acceleration
Prevention of Rod Photoreceptor Saturation: Range Extension
Desensitization and Acceleration
Unaltered Rising Phase, but Accelerated Recovery
Saturation of the Rod Photocurrent at Higher Background Intensities
Calcium-Dependent Mechanisms of Rapid Light Adaptation in Rod Photoreceptors
Role of Calcium: Resensitization through Prevention of Saturation
Powerful Negative-Feedback Loop Mediated by Calcium
Three Calcium-Sensitive Molecular Pathways
Guanylyl cyclase activation
Rod Photoreceptor Light Adaptation Independent of Calcium
Accelerated Turnover of cGMP
Slow Changes in Rods: Light Adaptation or Dark Adaptation
Light-Induced Change in the Dominant Time Constant
Light-Induced Translocation of Proteins
Dark Adaptation of the Rods: Very Slow Recovery from Bleaching
Phototransduction: Inactivation in Cones
Shutoff of the Light-Activated Cone Opsins
Inactivation of Transducin and PDE
Restoration of cGMP and Intracellular Calcium Level
Phototransduction: Inactivation in Rods
What Needs to Be Inactivated: Overview of the Signaling Cascade
Shutoff of the Light-Activated Rhodopsin
Inactivation of Td and PDE
Resynthesis of cGMP and Restoration of Calcium Level
Light-Dependent Protein Translocation and Rod Signaling
Why Rods Do Not Have an Action Potential
Phototransduction in Limulus Photoreceptors
Arrangement of Eyes in Limulus
The Microvillus is the Cellular Structure Mediating Visual Transduction
Studies of Visual Transduction Using Limulus Ventral Photoreceptors
The Light-Sensitive Conductance Consists of the Summed Effect of Conventional Ion Channels
The Response of the Ventral Photoreceptor is Mediated by the Phosphoinositide Cascade
The PI Cascade Generates at Least Two Intracellular Messenger Molecules
Roles of IP3 and Intracellular Ca2+ Ions in Excitation of Limulus Ventral Photoreceptors
IP3 Can Release Ca2+ from the SER
Released Ca2+ Ions can Activate an Inward Current
Light-Induced Ca2+ Release can be Detected before the Electrical Response
How Does IP3-Induced Ca2+ Release Activate Inward Current and is this Current Flowing through the Light- Sensitive Conductance
Adaptation, a Decrease in the Sensitivity of the Visual Cascade, is Mediated by Small, Lingering Elevations of Ca2+
Drosophila and Limulus Photoreceptors Operate Differently and Illustrate Two General Mechanisms Coupling the PI Cascade to an E
Extension of Phototransduction Mechanisms to other Microvillar Photoreceptor Types
Phototransduction: Phototransduction in Cones
Functional Properties of Cones
Obstacles for Studying Cone Phototransduction
Cone Visual Pigment and Phototransduction
Activation of Cone Phototransduction
Inactivation of Cone Phototransduction
Light Adaptation in Cones
Phototransduction: Phototransduction in Rods
Vertebrate Rods Are Highly Efficient Photon Detectors
Phototransduction in Rods: A G-Protein-Signaling Pathway
High Quantum Efficiency of Photoactivation
The Great Thermal Stability of Rhodopsin
The Activation of Transducin Constitutes the First Amplification Step
The High Catalytic Power of PDE Accounts For the Second Amplification Step
cGMP Is the Second Messenger Mediating Rod Phototransduction
The cGMP-Gated Channel Provides the Final Step of Signal Amplification
Phototransduction: Rhodopsin
Rhodopsin Cycle - Retinal Isomerization
Visual Cycle - Rhodopsin Regeneration
Vertebrate versus Invertebrate Rhodopsins
Rhodopsin Interaction with Other Proteins
Mutations in Rhodopsin and Retinal Diseases
Phototransduction: The Visual Cycle
Clearance of All-trans-RAL from OS Disks
Reduction of All-trans-RAL to All- trans- ROL
Transfer of All-trans-ROL from Photoreceptors to the RPE
Synthesis of Retinyl Esters
Synthesis of 11-cis-RAL Chromophore
Regeneration of Rhodopsin or Cone Opsin
Regulation of the Visual Cycle
Physiological Anatomy of the Choroidal Vasculature
Blood Supply of the Choroid
Posterior ciliary arteries
Branches of the main PCAs
Ocular supply by the PCAs
Normal In Vivo Circulation and Physiologic Anatomy of the Choroidal Vascular Bed
Posterior ciliary arteries
Segmental Nature of the Choroidal Vascular Bed
Watershed Zones in the Choroidal Vascular Bed
When there are two (medial and lateral) PCAs
When there are three or more PCAs
Between the Anterior Ciliary and SPCAs
Clinical Importance of Watershed Zones Between the PCAs
Physiological Anatomy of the Retinal Vasculature
Arterial Supply of the Retina
Intraretinal Branches of the CRA
Autoregulation of Retinal Blood Flow
The Physiological Consequences of Vitreous Composition
Anatomy and Physiology of the Nonvitrectomized Eye
Pharmacologic Vitreous Manipulation
Tractional Release During Vitrectomy
Cataract Formation after Vitrectomy
Other Molecular Changes after Vitrectomy
Sclerotomy Sites after Vitrectomy
Physiology of Photoreceptor Synapses and Other Ribbon Synapses
Anatomy of the Ribbon Synapse
Vesicle Pools and Vesicular Release at Synaptic Ribbons
Role of the Ribbon in Release
Photoreceptor Calcium Channels
Role of Intracellular Ca2+ in Release
Physiology of Release at Photoreceptor Synapses
Disease-Related Mutations in Synaptic Proteins at the Photoreceptor Synapse
Pigment Dispersion Syndrome and Pigmentary Glaucoma
Demographics of Pigment Dispersion Syndrome
Polarized-Light Vision in Land and Aquatic Animals
Polarized Light in Nature
Polarization Sensitivity and Polarization Vision
Polarization Responses of Photoreceptor Cells
Disentangling polarization and color sensitivity
The Contributions of Polarized-Light Perception to Behavior
Sensitivity to Circularly Polarized Light
Posterior Capsule Opacification
Regulatory Systems and Management of PCO
Survival, proliferation, migration, and differentiation
Transdifferentiation, matrix contraction, and matrix deposition
Posterior Subcapsular and Anterior Polar Cataract
Cataractogenesis and Lens Epithelial Cells
Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition
Lens Epithelial Cell Migration
Post-Golgi Trafficking and Ciliary Targeting of Rhodopsin
Photoreceptor Biosynthetic Membrane Trafficking: Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi, and Post-Golgi Transport Carriers
Small GTPases of the Rab and Arf Families and Their Regulators in Rhodopsin Trafficking
SNAREs and their Regulators in Rhodopsin Trafficking
ROS is a Modified Primary Cilium
Age-Related Changes in the Eye
Age-Related Changes in the Lens
Age-Related Changes in the Capsule
Increased Stiffness of the Lens
Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma
Optic Disk Appearance in POAG
Primary Photoreceptor Degenerations: Retinitis Pigmentosa
Nonsyndromic versus Syndromic Retinal Degeneration
Classification by Age of Onset
Classification by Fundus Appearance
Classification by Functional Loss
Anterior Segment and Cataract
Fundus Photography/Fluorescein Angiography
Optical Coherence Tomography
Resources/Support for Patients with RP
Optimizing Remaining Vision
Autologous RPE Transplantation
Stem-Cell-Based Therapies
Expression of Photosensitive Proteins
Primary Photoreceptor Degenerations: Terminology
Histological and Fundus Features of Retinitis Pigmentosa
Bone Spicule Pigmentation
Waxy Pallor of the Optic Nerve
Peripapillary/Optic Nerve Head Drusen
Classification of RP by Fundus Pattern
Tapetal-Like Reflex/Sheen
RP with Preserved Peri-Arteriolar RPE
Pigmented Paravenous Retinochoroidal Atrophy
Retinitis Punctata Albescens
Chronic Progressive External Ophthalmoplegia/Kearns-Sayre Syndrome
Incontinentia Pigmenti (Bloch-Schulzberg Syndrome)
Mucopolysaccharide Disorders
Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis (Batten Disease)
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 7
Terminology of Light Adaptation
Rod-Isolated ERG Response
Mixed Rod-Cone ERG Response
Cone-Isolated ERG Response
Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy
Location of PVR Membranes
The Significance of Membrane Formation in PVR
The Cells Involved in PVR
The Extracellular Matrix in PVR Membranes
Pathogenesis and Natural History
Incidence and Risk Factors
Clinical Classification of Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy
Properties and Functions of the Vessels of the Ciliary Body
Arterial and Venous Supply of the Ciliary Body
Vascular Organization of the CB
Characteristics and Properties of the CB Capillaries
Comparative Angioarchitecture of the Ciliary Processes in Other Species
Pseudoexfoliation Syndrome and Glaucoma
Pseudoexfoliation Syndrome
Etiology and Pathogenesis
Molecular pathophysiology
Ocular manifestations and complications
Pseudoexfoliation Glaucoma
Pathomechanisms of Glaucoma Development
Advantages of a Mobile Pupil
Overview of the Pathways Controlling Pupil Diameter
Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells
Pretectal olivary nucleus
Sympathetic Influences on the PLR
The Pupillary Near Response
Efferent Pathway of the PNR
Afferent Influences on the PNR
Additional Cortical Influences on Pupillary Responses
Visually Mediated Cortical Influences on Pupillary Behavior
Task-Evoked Pupillary Responses
Influence of Alertness on Pupillary Behavior
Ascending Neuromodulatory Systems
Guide to use of the Encyclopedia
Short Historical Background of Corneal Refractive Surgery
Corneal Refractive Surgery, Wound Healing, and Haze
Corneal Refractive Surgery, Optical Aberrations, and Visual Quality
Causes for Spherical Aberration Increase Following Corneal Refractive Surgery
Corneal Biomechanical Effects in Refractive Surgery
Other Side Effects and Complications of PRK and LASIK
Safety, Efficacy, and Satisfaction of LASIK
Toward an Optimization of the Corneal Refractive Surgery Procedure
Refractive Surgery and Inlays
Photorefractive Keratectomy
Laser in situ Keratomileusis
Laser-Assisted Subepithelial Keratectomy
Epithelial Laser in situ Keratomileusis (epi-LASIK)
Femtosecond Laser in situ Keratomileusis (FS-LASIK)
General Side Effects of Laser Refractive Surgery
Wave front and Laser Refractive Surgery
Regulation of Corneal Endothelial Cell Proliferation
Cell Cycle Progression, G1/S Transition and its Cell Cycle Regulators
G1 Phase Cell Cycle Arrest in CECs in vivo
Cell-Cell Contact Inhibition
The Presence of Antiproliferative TGF-beta2 in the Aqueous Humor
The Interaction Between CECs and Extracellular Matrix
What Do We Know From Primary and Subcultured CECs
Age-Related Decrease in Sensitivity to Mitogen or Growth Factors in Cultured HCECs
Comparison of Proliferative Capacity of HCECs from Central and Peripheral Regions
Overexpression of E2F2 Promotes Proliferation of CEC
PKC Signaling Pathways in Regulating Proliferation of CECs
Regulation of Corneal Endothelial Function
Corneal Endothelial Function
Stromal Swelling Pressure and Maintenance of Transparency
Endothelial Barrier Function
Corneal Endothelial Transport
Bicarbonate/Carbonic Anhydrase
Anion Transporters and Channels
MLC Phosphorylation and Actomyosin Contraction
Effect of MLC Phosphorylation on Corneal Endothelium Barrier Integrity
Transplantation Failure and Tumor Necrosis Factor
Regulation of Transport Activity and Barrier Integrity
Adenosine, Soluble Adenylate Cyclase, and cAMP
Role of cAMP-PKA axis in the Regulation of Barrier Integrity
Regulation of Extracellular Matrix Turnover in the Aqueous Humor Outflow Pathways*
Transforming Growth Factor-beta
TGF-beta Activation and Thrombospondin-1
Connective Tissue Growth Factor
Bone Morphogenic Proteins
Regulation of Intraocular Oxygen by the Vitreous Gel
Mapping of Intraocular Oxygen: Oxygen Gradients
The Vitreous Gel Consumes Oxygen: Experiments with Cadaver Vitreous
Ascorbate in the Vitreous Gel
Oxygen Consumption in the Human Vitreous Gel
The Importance of the Gel Structure of the Vitreous
Vitreous Liquefaction/Surgery Leads to Loss of Vitreous Gel Function
Intraocular Oxygen Tension after Vitrectomy Surgery
Marijuana and the Endocannabinoids
Distribution and Function
Cannabinoids and Ocular Tissues
Cannabinoids - Retinal Anatomy
Localization - Cannabinoid Receptors
Localization - Metabolizing Enzymes
Cannabinoids - Retinal Physiology
Effects on Transmitter Release
Effects on Ganglion cells
Cannabinoids and Photoreceptors
WIN 55,212-2 Affects the Cone Light Response
Cannabinoids - Development and Neuroprotection
Retinal Degeneration through the Eye of the Fly
The Compound Eye and Phototransduction
Genetic Screens Identify Retinal Degeneration Loci
Retinal Degenerations in Flies and Humans
Mechanisms of Retinal Degenerations
Light-Dependent Retinal Degenerations
Light-Independent Retinal Degenerations
Retinal Degenerations Caused by Mutations in Dual-Role Proteins
Retinal Ganglion Cell Apoptosis and Neuroprotection
Diagnosis and Measuring Glaucoma Progression
Current Treatments for Glaucoma
Mechanisms of Apoptosis and Development of Neuroprotective Agents
Neurotrophic Factor Withdrawal
NFs as Neuroprotective Agents
NMDA-Antagonists and Neuroprotective Agents
Mitochondrial Dysfunction and ROS Generation
Antioxidants as Neuroprotective Agents
Reduction of Misfolded Proteins in Neuroprotection
Glial-Neuronal Interactions
Extracellular Matrix Degradation
Transcription Factors and Competence
Retinal Pigment Epithelial-Choroid Interactions
RPE-C horoid Complex Development
RPE-C horoid Complex: Structure and Function
RPE Structure and Function
Choroid Structure and Function
BrM Structure and Function
RPE-C horoid Interactions
Interactions During Development
Interactions in the Adult
Isoform-specific VEGF mouse model
Choroidal change impact on RPE
RPE-C horoid Changes with Age
Retinal Pigment Epithelium: Cytokine Modulation of Epithelial Physiology
Human RPE: Morphology, Polarity, and Function
pHi - Induced Changes in Fluid Absorption
Modulation of SRS Metabolic Load and Chemical Composition
RPE-I mmune System Interactions in and around the SRS
Modulation of RPE Proliferation and Migration by Cytokines and Growth Factors
IFNgamma Regulation of RPE Fluid Transport
Leukocyte Migration across the RPE: A Model of Disease Progression
Retinal Vasculopathies: Diabetic Retinopathy
Nonproliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy
Screening for Diabetic Retinopathy
Retinal Pigmented Epithelium Barrier
Regulation of RPE Tight Junctions
Clues from Embryonic Maturation
Assembly of Tight Junctions during Differentiation
Culture Models to Study Regulation of the Outer Blood-Retinal Barrier
RPE in the Larger Context of Ocular Biology and Disease
Retinopathy of Prematurity
Clinical Classification of ROP
Fibrovascular stages/retinal detachment
Visual rehabilitation in preterm infants
Role of Oxygen in Retinal Development
Animal Models of Severe ROP
Mouse OIR (model of aggressive posterior ROP)
Rat 50/10 OIR (model of peripheral severe ROP)
Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor
Future Treatment Considerations
Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment
Break type - identification
Break localization - principles based on topography of RRD
Superotemporal and superonasal
Midline (12 o'clock meridian) and total detachments
RRD due to retinal hole or dialysis
RRD due to retinal hole or dialysis
RRD due to retinal hole or dialysis
RRD due to retinal hole or dialysis
RRD due to retinal hole or dialysis
Rod and Cone Photoreceptor Cells: Inner and Outer Segments
Rod and Cone Photoreceptor Cells: Outer-Segment Membrane Renewal
Rod Photoreceptor Cells: Soma and Synapse
The Single-Photon Signal and Noise
Synaptic Transfer Function: High Gain and Temporal Filtering
Synaptic Transfer Function: Nonlinear Threshold
Electrical Coupling in Starlight
Electrical Coupling in Twilight
The Role of Acetylcholine and Its Receptors in Retinal Processing
nAChR Subunits in the Vertebrate Retina
Distribution of alphaBgt-Sensitive nAChRs
alphaBgt-Insensitive nAChR Expression in the Retina
Dihydro-beta-erythroidine
Hexamethonium and mecamylamine
alpha-Bungarotoxin (alpha-Bgt)
nAChR Function in the Retina
nAChRs in Retinal Development
Role of Complement in Ocular Immune Response
Activation of Complement System
Regulation of the Complement System
Complement System and Protection of Eye
Complement System and Ocular Immune Responses
Complement and Age-Related Macular Degeneration
The Role of Oxidative Stress in the Trabecular Meshwork
Antioxidant Mechanisms in the Outflow Pathways
Evidence of Oxidative Stress in the Outflow Pathway
Effects of Oxidative Stress on the Outflow Pathway
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Role of Proteoglycans in the Trabecular Meshwork
Aqueous Humor Outflow Resistance
Site of Outflow Resistance
The Role of the Ciliary Body in Aqueous Humor Dynamics Structural Aspects
The Role of the Vitreous in Macular Hole Formation
Vitreous Anatomy and Biochemistry
Secondary Photoreceptor Degenerations: Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Secondary Photoreceptor Degenerations*
Mechanisms of Secondary Photoreceptor Death
Stability and Functional Integrity of New Blood Vessels
Formation of New Blood Vessels During Development and Under Pathological Conditions
Cell-Cell Adhesive Junctions in Blood Vessel Walls
Recruitment of Pericytes in New Blood Vessels
Angiopoietin/Tie Signals as Regulators of Stability and Integrity of Blood Vessels
Molecular Properties of Angiopoietins and Tie Receptors
Regulation of Angiogenesis and Vascular Homeostasis by Ang/Tie Signals
Intracellular Signaling Cascades Mediated by Tie2 Activation
Stability and Functional Integrity of Retinal Blood Vessels
Clinical Therapies to Restore Vascular Integrity in Retinal Vascular Disorders
Stem Cells of the Ocular Surface
Stem Cells in the Corneal Epithelium
Characteristics of Limbal Stem Cells
Limbal Stem Cell Deficiency
Understanding the Role for LSC in Corneal Homeostasis
Corneal Stromal Stem Cells
Corneal Endothelial Stem Cells
Steroid-Induced Ocular Hypertension and Effects of Glucocorticoids on the Trabecular Meshwork
Steroid-Induced Ocular Hypertension
Possible Role of GCs in POAG
Structural Changes in the Trabecular Meshwork with Primary Open Angle Glaucoma*
Effect of Accommodation on Outflow Resistance
Age-Related Changes of the CM- TM- System
Morphological Changes in the Outer TM of Eyes with POAG
Correlation between TM Changes and Axon Loss in the Optic Nerve
Structure and Evolution of Crystallins
Structure and Implications for Function
The beta- and gamma-Crystallins
The betagamma-Crystallin Fold and Tertiary Structure
Mapping of Protein and Gene Structure
Taxon-Specific Crystallins
The Surgical Treatment for Corneal Epithelial Stem Cell Deficiency, Corneal Epithelial Defect, and Peripheral Corneal Ulcer
Corneal Epithelial Transplantation for Total Stem Cell Deficiency
In Vivo Expansion of Corneal Epithelial Cells (Keratolimbal Allografts)
History and concept of ocular surface reconstruction
Other surgical procedures
Ex Vivo Expansion of Corneal Epithelial Cells
AM as a suitable carrier for corneal epithelial cell culture
Clinical outcome of allogeneic cultivated corneal epithelial transplantation
Ex Vivo Expansion of Oral Mucosal Epithelial Cells
Surgical procedure and postoperative medications
Clinical outcome of cultivated autologous oral mucosal epithelial transplantation
Phototherapeutic Keratectomy for Corneal Epithelial Disorders
PTK for Corneal Epithelial Defect
Tectonic Lamellar Keratoplasty for Peripheral Corneal Ulcers
Tear Transport through Canaliculi
Tear Transport through Lacrimal Sac and Nasolacrimal Duct
Adaptive Immune Mechanisms
Absorption of Tear Fluid Components
The Role of the Tear Film
Structure and Thickness of the Tear Film
Tear Distribution and Stability
Absorption of Tears by the Ocular Surface
The Structure and Function of the Tear Film
The Function and Structure of the Lipid Layer of Tear Film
The Relationship Between Tear-Film Lipids and Refraction
The Structure and Function of Aqueous Layer of the Tear Film
The Structure and Function of Mucous Layer of the Tear Film
Methods to Evaluate the Ocular Surface Health and Tear Functions
Rose Bengal/Lissamine Green Staining
Assessment of Tear Film Stability and Quantity
Tear-Film Break-Up Time (TFBUT)
Assessment of Other Tear Functions
Lipid-Layer Interferometry
Higher Order Aberration (HOA) Measurement
Uncontrolled Thyroid Dysfunction
Radioiodine Therapy for Graves' Disease
Unique Specializations - Functional: Dynamic Range of Vision Systems
Signal transfer from rods to rod bipolar cells
Signal transfer from rod bipolar cells to AII amacrine cells
Ganglion cell sensitivity
Adaptation to Mean Background Light
Adaptation: Cone Pathways
Techniques to Determine the Rate of Uveoscleral Flow
Values Obtained with Tracers in Different Species
Calculated Values from Human Eyes
Effect of Ciliary Muscle Tone
Role of Uveoscleral Flow in Normal and Diseased Eyes
The Discovery of the Endothelial Precursor Cell and Circulating Endothelial Cells
Bone Marrow Microenvironment for the Hematopoietic Stem Cells
Clonal Relationship of EPCs to HSCs
Making New Blood Vessels with BM Cells
EPCs as a Source of Paracrine Growth Factors for Vessel Growth
What Are EPCs Doing in the Eye When Are They Good When Are They Bad
EPC in Age-Related Macular Degeneration
EPC in the Retinal Disease
Hypoxia-Regulated Factors Recruit EPC to the Ischemic Retina
Do Cell Therapies Have a Role in the Eye If so, Who Will Benefit
Type 1 Diabetes Induces BM-Derived Cell Dysfunction
Can Diabetes Alter Cytokine Secretion by EPCs
Type 1 Diabetes Induces Nitric Oxide Dysfunction in EPCs
Drug Modulation of EPC Function
Vasoregression in Diabetic Retinopathy
The Role of Pericytes in Vasoregression
The Mechanisms Leading to Pericyte Dropout
The Biochemistry of Microvascular Damage and Vasoregression
Endothelial Damage and Loss Leading to Vasoregression
The Mediators of Vasoregression
Prevention of Vasoregression
Biochemial Pathway Inhibitors
Metabolic Signal Blockers
Vitreous Anatomy, Aging, and Anomalous Posterior Vitreous Detachment
Posterior Vitreous Detachment (PVD)
Vitreo-Macular Traction Syndrome
Xenopus laevis as a Model for Understanding Retinal Diseases
Early Work on X. laevis - Biochemistry, Electrophysiology, and Microscopy
X. laevis as a Model for Vitamin A Deprivation
X. laevis as a Model for Glaucoma
X. laevis and Studies of the Transport of Rhodopsin
Modeling RP in Transgenic X. laevis
Other Transgenic X. laevis Models of Retinal Disease
X. laevis as a Model for Eye Development/Developmental Disorders
X. laevis Models of Retinal Regeneration
Zebrafish as a Model for Understanding Retinal Diseases: Pde6, Apoptosis, and the Bystander Effects
The Advantages and Techniques of the Zebrafish Model System
Evaluating zebrafish vision
The Visual System: Phosphodiesterase and Phototransduction
Retinal Degeneration in pde6 Mutants: Primary Degeneration
Retinal Degeneration in pde6 Mutants: Secondary Retinal Degeneration, the Bystander Effect - Models and Mechanisms
Levels of the Bystander Effect in Photoreceptor Degeneration
Zebrafish Models of Retinal Degeneration: Mutations in pde6c
Zebrafish: Retinal Development and Regeneration
Zebrafish Eyes Form from a Single Field in the Anterior Neural Plate
The Laminar Structure of the Retina Forms as Cells Exit the Cell Cycle and Differentiate
Addition of Retinal Cells Throughout the Life of a Zebrafish
Regeneration in the Zebrafish Retina
Zebrafish regenerate all retinal neurons
Constant Intense Light Kills Photoreceptors, Which Are then Regenerated by Muumlller Glia
Discovery and Analysis of Candidate Genes Involved in Retinal Regeneration
Events Underlying Regeneration of the Light-Damaged Retina
Vestigial Retinal Regeneration Activity in Mammals
Similarities and Differences of Development with Retinal Ontogeny/Genesis
Encyclopedia of the Eye
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