Chapter
1.4 The First Phase of Innovation: 1930–1960
1.5 The Second Phase of Innovation and Mass Production: 1960 to Today
1.5.1 The State-Supported Development of Large Wind Turbines
1.5.2 The Development of Smaller Wind Turbines
1.5.3 Wind Farms, Offshore and Grid Connection
1.5.4 International Grids
2 The International Development of Wind Energy
2.1 The Modern Energy Debate
2.2 The Reinvention of the Energy Market
2.3 The Importance of the Power Grid
2.4 The New Value-added Chain
2.5 International Perspectives
2.6 Expansion into Selected Countries
2.8 International Institutions and Organisations
2.9 Global Wind Energy Outlook 2012 – The Global View into the Future
2.9.1 Development of the Market in Selected Countries
3 Wind Resources, Site Assessment and Ecology
3.2.1 Global Wind Systems and Ground Roughness
3.2.2 Topography and Roughness Length
3.2.4 Contour Lines and Obstacles
3.2.5 Wind Resources with WAsP, WindPRO, WindFarmer
3.2.6 Correlating Wind Potential with Mesoscale Models and Reanalysis Data
3.2.7 Wind in the Wind Farm
3.2.8 Wind Frequency Distribution
3.2.9 Site Classification and Annual Energy Production
3.2.10 Reference Yield and Duration of Increased Subsidy
3.3.3 Propagation through the Air
3.3.4 Imission Site and Benchmarks
3.3.5 Frequency Analysis, Tone Adjustment and Impulse Adjustment
3.3.6 Methods of Noise Reduction
3.3.7 Regulations for Minimum Distances
3.5.1 Turbulence from Surrounding Environment
3.5.2 Turbulence Attributed to Turbines
3.6 Two Comprehensive Software Tools for Planning Wind Farms
3.7 Technical Guidelines, FGW Guidelines and IEC Standards
3.8 Environmental Influences Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz (Federal Imission Control Act) and Approval Process
3.8.1 German Imission Protection Law (BImSchG)
3.8.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
3.8.4 Specific Aspects of the Process
3.8.6 Monitoring and Clarifying Plant-Specific Data
3.10 Solutions to the Problems
4 Aerodynamics and Blade Design
4.2.2 Basic Aerodynamic Terminology
4.3 Integral Momentum Theory
4.3.1 Momentum Theory of Wind Turbines: the Betz Limiting Value
4.3.2 Changes in Air Density with Temperature and Altitude
4.3.3 Influence of the Finite Blade Number
4.3.4 Swirl Losses and Local Optimisation of the Blades According to Glauert
4.3.5 Losses Due to Profile Drag
4.4 Momentum Theory of the Blade Elements
4.4.2 Example of an Implementation: WT -Perf
4.4.3 Optimisation and Design Rules for Blades
4.4.4 Extension of the Blade Element Method: The Differential Formulation
4.4.5 Three-Dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD)
4.4.6 Summary: Horizontal Plants
4.5.2 Aerodynamics of H Rotors
4.5.3 Aeroelastics of Vertical Axis Rotors
4.5.4 A 50 kW Rotor as an Example
4.5.5 Design Rules for Small Wind Turbines According to H-Darrieus Type A
4.5.6 Summary: Vertical Rotors
4.6 Wind-Driven Vehicles with a Rotor
4.6.2 On the Theory of Wind-Driven Vehicles
4.6.4 The Kiel Design Method
4.6.7 Summary: Wind Vehicles
5.2 Loads on Rotor Blades
5.2.2 Fundamentals of the Strength Calculations
5.2.3 Cross-Sectional Values of Rotor Blades
5.2.4 Stresses and Deformations
5.2.5 Section Forces in the Rotor Blade
5.2.6 Bending and Inclination
5.2.7 Results According to Beam Theory
5.3 Vibrations and Buckling
5.3.2 Buckling and Stability Calculations
5.4 Finite Element Calculations
5.4.1 Stress Calculations
5.4.2 FEM Buckling Calculations
5.4.3 FEM Vibration Calculations
5.5 Fibre-Reinforced Plastics
5.5.2 Materials (Fibres, Resins, Additives, Sandwich Materials)
5.5.3 Laminates and Laminate Properties
5.6 Production of Rotor Blades
5.6.1 Structural Parts of the Rotor Blades
5.6.2 Composite Manufacturing Methods
5.6.3 Assembly of the Rotor Blade
6.2 Blade Angle Adjustment Systems
6.3 Wind Direction Tracking
6.3.2 Description of the Function
6.3.4 Variations in Wind Direction Tracking Arrangements
6.4 Drive Train Components
6.4.1 Rotor Locking and Rotor Rotating Arrangements
6.4.2 Rotor Shaft and Mountings
6.5.1 Direct-Driven – Double Mounting
6.5.2 Direct-Driven – Torque Support
6.5.3 One–Two Step Geared Drives – Double Bearings
6.5.4 One–Two Step Geared Drives – Torque Support
6.5.5 Three–Four Step Geared Drives – Double Mountings
6.5.6 Three–Four Step Geared Drives – Three-Point Mountings
6.5.7 Three–Four Step Geared Drives – Torque Support
6.6 Damage and Causes of Damage
6.7 Design of Drive Train Components
6.8 Intellectual Property in the Wind Industry
6.8.1 Example Patents of Drive Trains
7.2 Guidelines and Standards
7.4 Verification of the Structure
7.4.1 Proof of Load Capacity
7.4.2 Proof of Fitness for Use
7.4.3 Proof of Foundation
7.4.4 Vibration Calculations (Eigen-Frequencies)
7.5.1 Door Openings in Steel Tube Towers
7.5.2 Ring Flange Connections
7.6.4 Glass Fibre-Reinforced Plastic
7.8 Foundations for Onshore WTs
8 Power Electronics and Generator Systems for Wind Turbines
8.2 Single-Phase AC Voltage and Three-Phase AC Voltage Systems
8.3.1 Principle and Calculations
8.3.2 Equivalent Circuit Diagram, Phasor Diagram
8.3.3 Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram
8.3.4 Three-Phase Transformers
8.4 Generators for Wind Turbines
8.4.1 Induction Machine with Short-Circuit Rotor
8.4.2 Induction Machine with Slip-Ring Rotor
8.5.2 Voltage Equations and Equivalent Circuit Diagram
8.5.4 Embodiment of Externally Excited Synchronous Machines
8.5.5 Permanently Excited Synchronous Machines
8.5.6 Variable Speed Operation of Synchronous Machines
8.6 Converter Systems for Wind Turbines
8.6.2 Frequency Converter in Two-Level Topology
8.6.3 Frequency Converter with Multi-Level Circuits
8.7 Control of Variable-Speed Converter-Generator Systems
8.7.1 Control of the Converter-Fed Induction Generator with Short-Circuit Rotor
8.7.2 Control of the Doubly-Fed Induction Machine
8.7.3 Control of the Synchronous Machine
8.7.4 Control of the Grid-Side Converter
8.7.5 Design of the Controls
8.8 Compliance with the Grid Connection Requirements
8.9 Further Electronic Components
8.10 Features of the Power Electronics Generator System in Overview
9 Control of Wind Energy Systems
9.1 Fundamental Relationships
9.1.1 Allocation of the WTS Automation
9.1.2 System Properties of Energy Conversion in WTs
9.1.3 Energy Transformation at the Rotor
9.1.4 Energy Conversion at the Drive Train
9.1.5 Energy Transformation at the Generator-Converter System
9.1.6 Idealised Operating Characteristic Curves of WTs
9.2.2 Blade Angle Control
9.2.3 Active Power Control
9.2.4 Reactive Power Control
9.2.5 Summary of the Control Behaviour and Extended Operating Ranges of the WT
9.3 Operating Management Systems for WTs
9.3.1 Control of the Operating Sequence of WTs
9.4 Wind Farm Control and Automation Systems
9.5 Remote Control and Monitoring
9.6 Communication Systems for WTS
10.1 Energy Supply Grids in Overview
10.1.2 Voltage Level of Electrical Supply Grids
10.2.1 Controlling the Power Range
10.2.2 Compensating Power and Balancing Grids
10.2.3 Base Load, Medium Load and Peak Load
10.2.4 Frequency Stability
10.2.5 Primary Control, Secondary Control and Tertiary Control
10.2.7 System Services by means of Wind Turbines
10.3 Basic Terminology of Grid Integration of Wind Turbines
10.3.1 Basic Electrical Terminology
10.4 Grid Connections for WTs
10.4.1 Rating the Grid Operating Media
10.4.2 Checking the Voltage Changes/Voltage Band
10.4.3 Checking the Grid Reaction ‘Fast Voltage Change’
10.4.4 Checking the Short-Circuit Strength
10.5 Grid Connection of WTs
10.5.2 Protective Equipment
10.5.3 Integration into the Grid System
10.6 Further Developments in Grid Integration and Outlook
11.1 Offshore Wind Turbines
11.1.2 Differences between Offshore and Onshore WTs
11.1.3 Environmental Conditions and Nature Protection
11.2.3 Vortex Shedding of Bodies Subject to Flows
11.3.2 Superposition of Waves and Currents
11.3.3 Loads Due to Waves (Morison Method)
11.4.2 Irregular or Natural Swells
11.4.5 Influence of Currents
11.4.6 Long-Term Statistics of the Swell
11.5 Scouring Formation, Growth, Corrosion and Ice
11.6 Foundations for OWTs
11.6.3 Floating Foundations
11.6.4 Operating Strength
11.7.3 Calculation of Load-Bearing Behaviour of the Sea Bed
Understanding Wind Power Technology
：Theory, Deployment and Optimisation
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