Economic Geology Principles and Practice: Metals, Minerals, Coal and Hydrocarbons – Introduction to Formation and Sustainable Exploitation of Mineral Deposits

Contents

Preface

Introduction

WHAT ARE ORE DEPOSITS?

MINING IN THE STRESS FIELD BETWEEN SOCIETY AND ENVIRONMENT

THE MINERAL RESOURCES CONUNDRUM

PART I: Metalliferous Ore Deposits

1 Geological ore formation process systems (metallogenesis)

Synopsis

1.1 MAGMATIC ORE FORMATION SYSTEMS

1.1.1 Orthomagmatic ore formation

1.1.2 Ore deposits at mid-ocean ridges and in ophiolites

1.1.3 Ore formation related to alkaline magmatic rocks, carbonatites and kimberlites

1.1.4 Granitoids and ore formation processes

1.1.5 Ore deposits in pegmatites

1.1.6 Hydrothermal ore formation

1.1.7 Skarn- and contact-metasomatic ore deposits

1.1.8 Porphyry copper (Mo-Au-Sn-W) deposits

1.1.9 Hydrothermal-metasomatic ore deposits

1.1.10 Hydrothermal vein deposits

1.1.11 Volcanogenic ore deposits

1.2 SUPERGENE ORE FORMATION SYSTEMS

1.2.1 Residual (eluvial) ore deposits

1.2.2 Supergene enrichment by descending (vadose) solutions

1.2.3 Infiltration as an agent of ore formation

1.3 SEDIMENTARY ORE FORMATION SYSTEMS

1.3.1 Black shales in metallogenesis

1.3.2 Placer deposits

1.3.3 Autochthonous iron and manganese deposits

1.3.4 Sediment-hosted, submarine-exhalative (sedex) base metal deposits

1.4 DIAGENETIC ORE FORMATION SYSTEMS

1.4.1 The European Copper Shale

1.4.2 Diagenetic-hydrothermal carbonatehosted Pb-Zn (F-Ba) deposits

1.4.3 Diagenetic-hydrothermal ore formation related to salt diapirs

1.5 METAMORPHIC AND METAMORPHOSED ORE DEPOSITS

1.6 METAMORPHOGENIC ORE FORMATION SYSTEMS

1.7 METALLOGENY – ORE DEPOSIT FORMATION IN SPACE AND TIME

1.7.1 Metallogenetic epochs and provinces

1.7.2 Metallogeny and plate tectonics

1.8 GENETIC CLASSIFICATION OF ORE AND MINERAL DEPOSITS

1.9 SUMMARY AND FURTHER READING

2 Economic geology of metals

Synopsis

2.1 THE IRON AND STEEL METALS

2.1.1 Iron

2.1.2 Manganese

2.1.3 Chromium

2.1.4 Nickel

2.1.5 Cobalt

2.1.6 Molybdenum

2.1.7 Tungsten (Wolfram)

2.1.8 Vanadium

2.2 BASE METALS

2.2.1 Copper

2.2.2 Lead and zinc

2.2.3 Tin

2.3 PRECIOUS METALS

2.3.1 Gold

2.3.2 Silver

2.3.3 Platinum and Platinum Group Metals

2.4 LIGHT METALS

2.4.1 Aluminium

2.4.2 Magnesium

2.5 MINOR AND SPECIALITY METALS

2.5.1 Mercury

2.5.2 Antimony

2.5.3 Arsenic

2.5.4 By-Product Electronic Metals (Selenium, Tellurium, Gallium, Germanium, Indium, Cadmium) and Silicon

2.5.5 Bismuth

2.5.6 Zirconium and Hafnium

2.5.7 Titanium

2.5.8 Rare Earth Elements (REE, Lanthanides)

2.5.9 Niobium and Tantalum

2.5.10 Lithium

2.5.11 Beryllium

2.5.12 Uranium (and Thorium)

2.6 SUMMARY AND FURTHER READING

PART II: Non-Metallic Minerals and Rocks

3 Industrial minerals, earths and rocks

Synopsis

3.1 ANDALUSITE, KYANITE AND SILLIMANITE

3.1.1 Andalusite

3.1.2 Kyanite

3.1.3 Sillimanite

3.2 ASBESTOS

3.2.1 Asbestos mineralization types

3.3 BARITE AND CELESTITE

3.3.1 Geochemistry

3.3.2 Barite deposit types

3.4 BENTONITE (SMECTITE ROCKS)

3.4.1 Bentonite deposit types

3.5 BORON

3.5.1 Geochemistry

3.5.2 Boron deposit types

3.6 CARBONATE ROCKS: LIMESTONE, CALCITE MARBLE, MARLSTONE, DOLOMITE

3.6.1 Limestone

3.6.2 Metamorphic calcite (and occasionally dolomite) marbles

3.6.3 Marlstone

3.6.4 Dolomite

3.7 CLAY AND CLAY ROCKS

3.7.1 Clay deposit types

3.8 DIAMOND

3.8.1 Source and formation of diamonds

3.8.2 Diamond deposit types

3.9 DIATOMITE AND TRIPOLI

3.9.1 Diatomite deposit types

3.9.2 Tripoli

3.10 FELDSPAR

3.11 FLUORITE

3.11.1 Geochemistry

3.11.2 Fluorite deposit types

3.12 GRAPHITE

3.12.1 Graphite deposit types

3.13 GYPSUM AND ANHYDRITE

3.13.1 Deposits of gypsum and anhydrite

3.14 KAOLIN

3.14.1 Kaolin deposit types

3.15 MAGNESITE

3.15.1 Magnesite deposit types

3.16 MICA (MUSCOVITE, PHLOGOPITE, VERMICULITE)

3.16.1 Muscovite and phlogopite

3.16.2 Vermiculite

3.17 OLIVINE

3.17.1 Olivine deposits

3.18 PHOSPHATES

3.18.1 Geochemistry

3.18.2 Phosphate deposit types

3.19 QUARTZ AND SILICON

3.19.1 Quartz deposit types

3.20 QUARTZITE

3.20.1 Metamorphic quartzite deposits

3.20.2 Sedimentary quartzite

3.21 QUARTZ SAND AND GRAVEL

3.21.1 Industrial sand and gravel

3.21.2 Building sand and gravel

3.22 SODIUM CARBONATE, SULPHATE AND ALUM

3.22.1 Sodium sulphate

3.22.2 Alum salts

3.23 SULPHUR

3.23.1 Geochemistry

3.23.2 Deposit types of elementary sulphur

3.24 TALC AND PYROPHYLLITE

3.24.1 Talc deposit types

3.24.2 Pyrophyllite

3.25 VOLCANICLASTIC ROCKS

3.25.1 Pumice

3.25.2 Perlite

3.25.3 Trass

3.26 WOLLASTONITE

3.26.1 Wollastonite deposit formation

3.27 ZEOLITES

3.27.1 Zeolite deposit types

3.28 SUMMARY AND FURTHER READING

4 Salt deposits (evaporites)

Synopsis

4.1 SALT MINERALS AND SALT ROCKS

4.1.1 Salt minerals

4.1.2 Salt rocks

4.2 THE FORMATION OF SALT DEPOSITS

4.2.1 Salt formation today

4.2.2 Salt formation in the geological past

4.3 POST-DEPOSITIONAL FATE OF SALT ROCKS

4.3.1 Diagenesis and metamorphism of evaporites

4.3.2 Deformation of salt rocks

4.3.3 Forms and structures of salt deposits

4.3.4 Supergene alteration of salt deposits

4.4 FROM EXPLORATION TO SALT MINING

4.4.1 Exploration and development of salt deposits

4.4.2 Geological practice of salt mining

4.5 SUMMARY AND FURTHER READING

PART III: The Practice of Economic Geology

5 Geological concepts and methods in the mining cycle: exploration, exploitation and closure of mines

Synopsis

5.1 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

5.2 THE SEARCH FOR MINERAL DEPOSITS (EXPLORATION)

5.2.1 The pre-exploration stage

5.2.2 Geological exploration

5.2.3 Geological remote sensing

5.2.4 Geochemical exploration

5.2.5 Geophysical exploration

5.2.6 Trenching and drilling

5.3 DEVELOPMENT AND VALUATION OFMINERAL DEPOSITS

5.3.1 Geological mapping and sampling

5.3.2 Ore reserve estimation anddetermination of grade

5.3.3 Valuation of mineral deposits

5.4 MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENT

5.4.1 Potential environmental problems related to mining and mine-site processing plants

5.5 DEEP GEOLOGICAL DISPOSAL OF DANGEROUS WASTE

5.6 SUMMARY AND FURTHER READING

PART IV: Fossil Energy Raw Materials – Coal, Oil and Gas

6 Coal

Synopsis

6.1 THE SUBSTANCE OF COAL

6.1.1 Coal types

6.1.2 Petrography of coal

6.1.3 The chemical composition of coal

6.2 PEAT FORMATION AND COAL DEPOSITS

6.2.1 Types and dimensions of coal seams

6.2.2 Concordant and discordant clastic sediments in coal seams

6.2.3 Peat formation environments

6.2.4 Host rocks of coal

6.2.5 Marker beds in coal formations

6.2.6 Coal formation in geological space and time

6.3 THE COALIFICATION PROCESS

6.3.1 Biochemical peatification

6.3.2 Geochemical coalification

6.3.3 Measuring the degree of coalification

6.3.4 Causes of coalification

6.3.5 Coal maturity and diagenesis of country rocks

6.4 POST-DEPOSITIONAL CHANGES OF COAL SEAMS

6.4.1 Tectonic deformation

6.4.2 Epigenetic mineralization of coal seams

6.4.3 Exogenetic alteration of coal

6.5 APPLICATIONS OF COAL GEOLOGY

6.5.1 Exploration

6.5.2 Reserve estimation

6.5.3 Coal mining geology

6.5.4 Environmental aspects of coal mining

6.6 SUMMARY AND FURTHER READING

7 Petroleum and natural gas deposits

Synopsis

7.1 SPECIES OF NATURAL BITUMENS, GAS AND KEROGEN, AND THEIR PROPERTIES

7.1.1 Crude oil, or petroleum

7.1.2 Natural gas

7.1.3 Natural gas hydrates (clathrates)

7.1.4 Tar

7.1.5 Earth wax (ozocerite)

7.1.6 Pyrobitumens

7.1.7 Natural asphalt

7.1.8 Kerogen

7.2 THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS

7.2.1 Petroleum source rocks

7.2.2 Dry gas source rocks

7.2.3 Eogenesis and catagenesis of kerogen

7.2.4 The oil window

7.3 FORMATION OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS DEPOSITS

7.3.1 Migration

7.3.2 Reservoir rocks

7.3.3 Petroleum and gas traps

7.3.4 Formation and reservoir waters

7.3.5 Alteration of petroleum in reservoirs (degradation)

7.3.6 Tectonic environments and age of hydrocarbon provinces

7.4 EXPLORING FOR PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS DEPOSITS

7.4.1 Geophysical methods

7.4.2 Geochemical methods of hydrocarbon exploration

7.4.3 Exploration drilling

7.4.4 Geophysical borehole measurements

7.5 THE EXPLOITATION OF PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS DEPOSITS

7.5.1 Reservoir conditions

7.5.2 Oil and gasfield development

7.5.3 Oil and gas production

7.5.4 Petroleum mining

7.5.5 Reserve and resource estimation

7.5.6 Post-production uses of oil and gas fields

7.6 TAR SAND, ASPHALT, PYROBITUMEN AND SHUNGITE

7.6.1 Tar sand

7.6.2 Asphalt

7.6.3 Pyrobitumens

7.6.4 Shungite

7.7 OIL SHALES

7.8 ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION

7.8.1 Water resources protection

7.8.2 Induced seismic activity

7.8.3 Tar sand mining

7.8.4 Hydrocarbons and climate

7.9 SUMMARY AND FURTHER READING

Epilogue

References

Index

Colour Plates