Chapter
1.6 A Frog is not a Frog but Merely a Transient Phase Between a Tadpole and an Egg
1.7 Friends and Neighbours
2.2 Archaean Climate and Life (~3500 Ma)
2.3 Transition to the Land (~470 Ma)
2.3.1 The rise of the embryophytes
2.3.2 Embryophytes and the decline in atmospheric CO[sub(2)] and the rise of O[sub(2)]
2.4 Mass Extinction and Extreme Environments
2.4.1 Permian/Triassic (P/Tr) boundary
2.4.2 Cretaceous/Tertiary (K/T) boundary (65 Ma)
3 Polar Marine Ecosystems
3.2 The Arctic Seas Versus the Southern Ocean
3.5.4 Diversity gradients
3.7.2 Carbonate compensation depth
4.2 The Physics of Sea Ice
4.4 Organisms Living in Sea Ice
4.5 Mechanisms to Avoid Freezing
4.6 Extracellular Polymeric Substances in Sea Ice
4.8 Dimethylsulphonioproprionate in Sea Ice
4.9 Biomarkers for Sea Ice Extent in Past Climates
5 Polar Terrestrial Environments
5.2 Terrestrial Ecosystems
5.3 Terrestrial Biota and Communities
5.3.1 Ice-free ecosystems
5.3.5 Exceptional ecosystems
5.4 Physiology and Ecology
5.4.1 Life history strategies
5.4.2 Life under extreme stress
5.5 Colonization of the Polar Regions by Terrestrial Biota
5.6 Arctic and Antarctic Comparisons
6 High Altitude and Latitude Lakes
6.3 Seasonal Patterns of Primary Productivity
6.3.1 Alpine lake primary production
6.3.2 Arctic lake primary production
6.3.3 Antarctic lake primary production
6.4 Secondary Production: Bacteria and Viruses
6.5 Secondary Producers: Protozoa and Invertebrates
6.6 Survival Strategies and Adaptation in Extreme Lakes
7.2 Geographic Range, History and Distribution
7.3 The Extreme Characteristics of Subglacial Lakes
7.4 The Predicted Diversity and Community Composition of Life in Subglacial Lakes
7.4.1 Analogues for life in subglacial lakes
7.4.2 Challenges for the study of life in subglacial lakes
7.4.3 Likely organism groups
7.6 Methods Employed to Study Subglacial Lakes
7.7 Subglacial Lake Extremophiles and Biotechnology
8.2 Alpine Cryospheric Compartments and the Diversity of Life Within Them
8.2.1 Ice covers on high mountain lakes
8.3 Extremotolerant Organisms in Biotechnology and Astrobiology
9 Glacier Surface Habitats
9.1 Introduction to Glacier Surface Habitats
9.2 Structures and Types of Supraglacial Environments
9.2.3 Other sediment forms
9.3 Extreme Conditions in Supraglacial Environments
9.3.1 Biogeochemical processes in cryoconite holes
9.3.2 Measuring biological activity in cryoconite holes
9.4 The Diversity of Supraglacial Communities
9.4.1 Cryoconite hole communities
9.4.2 Glacier ice and snow communities
9.5 Impacts on Surrounding Environments
9.6 Implications for Surrounding Regions and Life on Other Planets
10.1 Introduction: a Cold, Dry Environment
10.3 The Diversity of Life in the Dry Valleys Polar Desert
10.3.1 Plant and fungal life
10.4 Mechanisms for Survival in Polar Deserts
10.4.1 Desiccation and anhydrobiosis
10.4.2 Freeze tolerance, freeze avoidance and ‘supercooling’
10.5 Trophic Structure and Food Webs
10.6 Environmental Changes and Biotic Response
10.6.2 Biotic responses to change
10.7 The Human Connection
11 Hot Desert Environments
11.1 The Hot Desert Environment
11.1.1 Formation and geographical distribution
11.1.2 Types of hot deserts
11.2 Abiotic Stress Factors in Hot Deserts and Mechanisms of Stress Resistance
11.2.1 Radiation and temperature
11.2.4 Strong wind and dust storms
11.3 Biotic Interactions in Deserts
12 Terrestrial Hydrothermal Environments
12.1 Introduction to Terrestrial Hydrothermal Environments
12.2 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Terrestrial Hydrothermal Environments
12.3 The Diversity of Terrestrial Hydrothermal Environments
12.3.1 Microbiology of terrestrial thermal habitats: neutral and alkaline habitats
12.3.2 Microbiology of terrestrial thermal habitats: acidic habitats
12.4 Mechanisms for Survival in Terrestrial Hydrothermal Environments
12.4.1 Genetic stability at high temperatures
12.4.3 Membranes and intracellular pH homeostasis
12.5 Evolutionary Implications
12.6 Biotechnology: Commercial Utilization of Thermophiles
12.7 Possible Analogues for Life on Early Earth and in Exobiology
13 Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents
13.2 Diversity of Life at Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vent Sites
13.3 How Fast Do Biological and Geological Processes Occur at Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents?
13.4 Organism Strategies and Adaptations at Deep-sea Hydrothermal Vents
13.4.3 Sulfide stabilization
13.5 Implications for Origin of Life and Extraterrestrial Life Forms
14 High Hydrostatic Pressure Environments
14.2 Pressure Effects on Biological Systems
14.2.1 Principle of pressure effects on biological systems
14.2.2 Pressure effects on molecular assemblages in cells
14.2.3 Thresholds of pressure effects and interactions with other physico-chemical factors
14.3 High Pressure Biosphere Collections and Observation Tools
14.4 Adaptation to High Hydrostatic Pressure
14.4.1 Evolution of pressure-resistant functions
14.4.2 Gene expression pattern changes in response to pressure
14.4.3 Pressure-induced specific genes
14.5 Pressure Variations’ Impact on Organisms’ Life History Strategies
14.5.1 Deep diving in surface dwellers
14.5.2 Pressure changes in marine embryos and larvae
14.5.3 Sensing pressure changes
15.2 The Deep-Sea Environment
15.2.1 Physical and chemical background
15.2.2 Food for the deep sea
15.2.3 How ‘extreme’ is the deep sea?
15.3 Life in a Dark World
15.3.1 Vision and bioluminescence
15.3.2 Light and the pace of life
15.4.1 Mid-water filterers and predators
15.4.3 Seafloor predators and scavengers
15.5 Deep-Sea Life Cycles
15.5.1 Size, growth and longevity
15.6 Ecosystem Structure and Functioning
15.6.1 Variation in biomass with depth, geography and time
15.6.2 Biodiversity in the deep sea
15.6.3 Food webs and energy flow
15.7 Caves as Deep-Sea Analogues
15.8 Deep-Sea Life Beyond the Earth?
16 Caves and Karst Environments
16.2 Description of Caves: Definition, Distribution and Biogeochemistry
16.2.2 Classification and formation of caves
16.2.3 The cave environment
16.3 The Biology of Caves
16.3.1 History of biological cave research
16.4 Natural and Anthropogenically Disturbed Caves and the Future of Cave Preservation
16.5 Summary and Future Visions of Cave Life Sciences
17 The Deep Biosphere: Deep Subterranean and Subseafloor Habitats
17.1 Introduction to the Deep Biosphere
17.2 Types of Deep Subsurface Environment
17.2.2 Continental sedimentary rocks
17.2.3 Ancient salt deposits
17.2.4 Aquifers in igneous terrestrial rocks
17.2.6 Subseafloor sediments and basement rock
17.3 Case Study: Deep Subseafloor
17.3.3 The physical and chemical extremes of the deep subseafloor
17.4 Life in the Deep Subseafloor
17.4.1 Diversity and community composition
17.4.2 Metabolic activity in the deep subseafloor
17.5 Adaptations to Life in Deep Subseafloor Environments
17.6 Was the Origin of Life ‘Deep’?
17.7 Search for Extraterrestrial Life in Subsurface Samples from Other Planets
18.2 Types of Acidic Environment
18.3 Biodiversity in Acidic Environments
18.4 Food Webs and Ecology
18.5 Metabolism and Physiology
18.5.1 Proton exclusion and extrusion (internal neutral pH)
18.5.2 Proton-induced damage to proteins
18.5.3 Lipid and fatty acid composition
18.5.4 Uptake of nutrients
18.5.5 High metal concentrations
18.6 The Application of Acidophiles
18.6.1 Biodegradation of complex molecules
18.6.2 Bioremediation of iron- and sulfate-rich lakes
18.6.3 Bioleaching of metals
18.7 Acidic Environments as Extraterrestrial Analogues
19.1 Alkaline Environments
19.1.1 Industrial locations
19.1.2 Transient alkaline environments
19.1.3 Calcium-dominated groundwaters
19.1.4 Soda lakes and deserts
19.2 The Diversity, Community Composition and Biochemical Groups of Alkaliphiles in Soda Lakes
19.2.2 Chemo-organotrophs
19.2.4 Sulfur-reducing and -oxidizing alkaliphiles
19.2.5 Acetogenic and acetoclastic alkaliphiles
19.2.6 Nitrogen-fixing, ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing, and nitrate-reducing alkaliphiles and nitrification
19.3 Mechanisms of Adaptation to High Alkalinity
19.3.2 The cell membrane and cytoplasmic pH regulation
19.3.4 Alkaliphiles versus neutrophiles
19.4.1 Lake Turkana, Kenya
19.4.2 Lake Magadi, Kenya
19.4.4 Octopus Spring, USA
19.5 Alkaliphiles in Biotechnology
19.6 Alkaliphiles as Analogues for Early Life on Earth and on Other Planets
20 Hypersaline Environments
20.2 Halophiles – the Main Groups
20.3 An Overview of Hypersaline Environments
20.4 Factors Influencing Diversity, Community Composition and Distribution of Halophilic Microbes
20.4.1 The effect of the ionic composition of brines on halophilic microbes
20.4.2 Diversity, evolution and biogeography of halophilic microbes
20.5 Mechanisms of Adaption to High Salinity
20.5.1 ‘Salt-in’ and ‘compatible-solute’ strategies
20.5.2 (Post)-genomic insights
20.6 Ecological Guilds and Biochemical Groups of Halophiles
20.6.1 Oxygenic phototrophs
20.6.2 Anoxygenic phototrophs
20.6.3 Aerobic chemo-organoheterotrophs: extreme halophiles
20.6.4 Aerobic chemo-organoheterotrophs: moderate halophiles
20.6.5 Aerobic chemolithoautotrophs
20.6.6 Anaerobic: fermentative organisms
20.6.7 Anaerobic: denitrifiers and miscellaneous others
20.6.8 Anaerobic: sulfate reducers
20.6.9 Anaerobic: methanogens and acetogens
20.7.2 Great Salt Lake, USA
20.7.5 Deep-sea anoxic hypersaline brine lakes
20.7.6 Buried salt deposits
20.8 Societal Importance of Hypersaline Environments and Halophiles
21.2.1 Subterranean burrows
21.3 Aquatic Environments
21.3.1 Oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)
21.3.2 Temporary/seasonal hypoxia in marine systems
21.3.3 Chronically hypoxic and highly variable zones
21.3.4 Freshwater systems
21.4 Hypoxia in a Changing World
21.5 Conclusions and Future Directions of Research
22 High Ultraviolet Radiation Environments
22.2 Biological Effects of UV Radiation
22.3 Factors Affecting the Receipt of UV Radiation
22.4 Responses of Terrestrial Organisms to UV-B Radiation
22.4.2 Microbes and soils
22.5 The Influence of UV-B on Aquatic Ecosystems
22.6 Aquatic UV-B Irradiances
22.7 Tolerance Mechanisms
22.8 Responses of Aquatic Organisms to UV-B Radiation
22.9 Effects of UV-B on Aquatic Communities
23 Life in a Changing Climate
23.2 Will Extreme Species, Communities, Habitats and Ecosystems be Affected by Climate Change?
23.3 The Effects of Holocene Climate Oscillations on Aquatic Invertebrate Species
23.4 The Release of Heavy Metals from Melting Permafrost
24 Anthropogenic Extreme Environments
24.2 Chemical Extremes: Inorganic
24.3 Chemical Extremes: Organic
24.3.2 Eutrophication and hypoxia
24.4 Physical Extremes: Radiation
24.4.1 Nuclear weapons use and testing
24.4.4 Ultraviolet radiation
24.5 Physical Extremes: Temperature
24.6 Physical Extremes: Pressure
24.7 Physical Extremes: Light
24.8 Physical Extremes: Habitat Modification
25 Biotechnological Applications of Extremophiles: Promise and Prospects
25.2 Industrial Applications of Extremophiles
25.2.1 Extremophilic enzymes in biotechnology
25.2.2 Extremozyme use in the detergent industry
25.2.3 Extremozyme use in the leather industry
25.2.4 Application of extremophiles for biomining
25.2.5 Application of extremophiles in the biorefining industry
25.2.6 Application of extremophiles in the chemical industry
25.3 Medical and Biomedical Applications of Extremophiles
25.3.3 Antibiotic production and resistance to antibiotics
25.4 Environmental Applications of Extremophiles
25.4.1 Bioremediation of heavy metals and hydrocarbons
25.4.2 Bioremediation of radionuclides
25.5 Extremophiles as Food Additives
25.6 Extremophile Use in Agriculture
25.7 Sustainably Harnessing Extremophiles
25.8 The Future of Extremophile Biotechnology
26 Extreme Environments on Earth as Analogues for Life on Other Planets: Astrobiology
26.2 Learning Lessons from Extremophiles
26.3 Extreme Environments as Analogues for Astrobiology
26.3.1 The Dry Valleys, Antarctica
26.3.2 Lake Vostok, Antarctica
26.3.3 Svaldbard, Norwegian Arctic
26.3.5 Atacama Desert, Chile
26.3.6 Kamchatka hot springs, Russia
26.4 Extremophilic Organisms as Analogues for Extraterrestrial Life
26.4.1 Lichens as models for astrobiological research
26.5 Panspermia – Orbital, Extraterrestrial Environments
26.6 Recent and Future Directions for Astrobiology
27.1 Extremes and Extremophiles
27.2 Lessons from Past Extremes
27.3 Influence on Global Processes and Anthropogenically Induced Extremes
27.4 Use of Extremophiles in Allowing Humans to Live Outside our Own ‘Extreme Envelope’
27.5 Outlook for the Discovery of Life on Other Planets
Life at Extremes
：Environments, Organisms and Strategies for Survival
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