Chapter
1 Survival of Parasitic Nematodes outside the Host
1.2 Survival of Life Cycle Stages
1.3 Hatching and Dormancy
1.4 Behavioural Adaptations
1.6 Implications for Control Options
1.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
2 Survival of Plant-parasitic Nematodes inside the Host
2.2 Morphological Adaptations to Plant Parasitism
2.2.1 Cuticle, surface coat and cuticular camouflage
2.2.2 The oral stylet – a multi-tool for nematodes
2.2.3 Pharyngeal glands – the source of all evil
2.3 Molecular and Physiological Adaptations to Plant Parasitism
2.3.2 Feeding behaviour and structures
2.3.3 Plant innate immunity
2.3.4 PAMP-triggered immunity
2.3.5 Effector-triggered immunity
2.4 Molecular and Cellular Phenomena in Plant Innate Immunity to Nematodes
2.4.1 Defence genes: phytoalexins, pathogenesis-related proteins and protease inhibitors
2.4.2 Pathogenesis-related proteins
2.4.3 Protease inhibitors
2.4.4 Cell wall fortifications with callose deposits and lignin
2.4.5 Hypersensitive response and programmed cell death
2.5 Immune Modulation by Nematodes in Plants
2.5.1 Detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and modulation of ROS signalling
2.5.2 Modulation of plant hormone balance and secondary metabolism
2.5.3 Modulation of lipid-based defences
2.5.4 Modulation of calcium signalling
2.5.5 Modulation of host protein turnover rate
2.5.6 Modulation of host immune receptors
2.5.7 Cross-kingdom modulation
2.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
3 Survival of Animal-parasitic Nematodes inside the Animal Host
3.2 Gastrointestinal-dwelling Nematodes
3.2.1 Gastrointestinal nematode infection – chronicity is the norm
3.2.2 The immune response to gastrointestinal nematodes – can it be protective?
3.2.3 Immunoregulation during chronic infection – a necessary compromise?
3.2.4 Trichinella, a gut- and tissue-dwelling nematode that bucks the trend
3.3.1 Adaptation to changes in environment
3.3.2 Immunomodulation during filarial nematode infection
3.3.3 Defined filarial nematode molecules known to modulate the immune system
3.4 Conclusions and Future Directions
4 The Genome of Pristionchus pacificus and Implications for Survival Attributes
4.2 Pristionchus–Beetle Interactions and Biogeography
4.2.1 Diplogastridae–insect interactions
4.2.2 Pristionchus–beetle interactions
4.2.3 Pristionchus pacificus is a cosmopolitan species
4.3 Behaviour and Chemoattraction
4.4 Pristionchus–Bacterial Interactions
4.5 From Genetics to Genomics
4.5.1 Expansion of detoxification machinery
4.5.2 Cellulases and horizontal gene transfer
4.5.3 The evolution of parasitism and the role of ‘pre-adaptations’
4.6 The Analysis of Pristionchus pacificus Dauer Regulation Provides Inroads for the Study of Parasitism
4.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
5.2 Initiating Dauer Development
5.2.1 Environmental signals
5.2.2 The chemistry of dauer induction
5.2.3 Sensory biology and ecology of dauer signals
5.2.4 Dauer signalling and the ecology of the dauer phenomenon
5.3 Genetic Variation in Dauer Switching
5.4 The Biology of the Dauer Stage
5.5 Dauer as a Pre-adaptation for the Evolution of Parasitism in Nematodes
5.5.1 Dauer biology and parasitism
5.5.2 Dauer molecular biology and parasite evolution
5.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
6 Gene Induction and Desiccation Stress in Nematodes
6.2 The Effects of Water Loss on Living Systems
6.4 Membrane Integrity in Anhydrobiotic Nematodes
6.5 Oxidative Stress and its Effects during Desiccation and Anhdyrobiosis
6.6 Stabilizing Nucleic Acids
6.7 Model Nematodes for Anhydrobiosis Studies
6.8 Conclusions and Future Directions
7 Longevity and Stress Tolerance of Entomopathogenic Nematodes
7.2 Longevity of Infective Juveniles
7.3 Factors Affecting Longevity of Infective Juveniles
7.3.1 Stored energy reserves
7.4 Physiological Mechanisms of Longevity and Stress Tolerance
7.4.1 Physiology of longevity
7.4.2 Physiology of temperature tolerance
7.4.3 Physiology of desiccation tolerance
7.4.4 Physiology of hypoxia tolerance
7.5 Genetic Selection for Temperature and Desiccation Tolerance
7.6 Molecular Mechanisms of Desiccation Tolerance
7.7 Identification of Longevity and Stress Tolerance Genes
7.7.2 Stress tolerance genes
7.8 Conclusions and Future Directions
8.2 Cold Tolerance Strategies
8.2.1 How many strategies?
8.2.2 What is the dominant strategy of nematode cold tolerance?
8.3 Cold Tolerance Mechanisms
8.3.1 Phenotypic plasticity
8.3.2 Changes in phospholipid saturation
8.3.3 Heat shock proteins
8.3.5 Ice-active proteins
8.3.6 Other mechanisms of cold tolerance
8.4 Linking Mechanisms to Strategies
8.4.1 The role of trehalose
8.4.2 Stress proteins in cold tolerance
8.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
9 Molecular Analyses of Desiccation Survival in Antarctic Nematodes
9.2 Molecular Anhydrobiology of Antarctic Nematodes
9.3 Stress Response System
9.3.1 Constitutively expressed genes
9.3.2 Stress-induced genes
9.4 Signal Transduction System
9.6 Oxidative Stress Response and Detoxification System
9.8 Cross-tolerance and Stress-hardening
9.9 Conclusions and Future Directions
10.2 Temperature Regulates Development in Nematodes
10.3 How Does Caenorhabditis elegans Sense Temperature?
10.4 Temperature Sensing in Parasitic Nematodes
10.5 Heat Shock Factor – the Master Regulator of the Heat Shock Response
10.6 Integration of the Stress Response and Developmental Pathways
10.7 Heat Shock Protein Families
10.7.2 The small heat shock protein family
10.8 Conclusions and Future Directions
11 Osmotic and Ionic Regulation
11.2 Osmotic and Ionic Regulation in Nematodes
11.2.1 Measuring internal osmotic concentration, water flux and volume changes
11.2.2 The importance of balanced salt solutions
11.2.3 Osmoconformers or osmoregulators?
11.2.4 Hyperosmotic or hyposmotic regulation?
11.3 Avoidance of Osmotic Stress
11.4 Survival of Extreme Osmotic/Ionic Stress
11.5 Mechanisms of Osmotic Regulation
11.5.1 Excretory structures and osmoregulation
11.5.2 Cuticular permeability
11.5.3 The operation and control of osmoregulatory mechanisms
11.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
12 Biochemistry of Survival
12.2 Proteins and Enzymes
12.2.1 Temperature and protein stability
12.2.2 Enzymes in hot- and cold-adapted animals
12.2.3 Proteins and hydrostatic pressure
12.3 Detoxification Mechanisms
12.3.1 Xenobiotic metabolism
12.3.2 ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters
12.3.3 Xenobiotic binding proteins
12.3.5 Antioxidant systems
12.4.1 Aerobic metabolism
12.4.2 Anaerobic metabolism
12.4.3 Animal-parasitic nematodes
12.4.4 Anaerobic metabolism in an aerobic environment
12.5 Membranes and Lipids
12.6 Membranes and Temperature
12.6.1 Intrinsic adaptations to temperature
12.6.2 Extrinsic adaptations to temperature
12.7 Membranes and Hydrostatic Pressure
12.8 Membranes and Desiccation
12.9 Conclusions and Future Directions
Molecular and Physiological Basis of Nematode Survival
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