Chapter
1 Meloidogyne species – a Diverse Group of Novel and 1 Important Plant Parasites
1.4 Current Trends in Species Identification
1.5.1 Incompatible host reactions
1.6.1 Concept of host races
1.7 Major and Emerging Species
1.7.1 Meloidogyne enterolobii (= Meloidogyne mayaguensis)
1.7.2 Meloidogyne paranaensis
1.7.3 Meloidogyne fallax and Meloidogyne chitwoodi
1.8 Interactions with Other Plant Pathogens
1.9 Management and Control
1.10 Conclusions and Future Directions
2.1.1 Second-stage juvenile
2.3.1 Cephalic sensory structures
2.3.2 Caudal sensory structures
2.5 Secretory–Excretory System
2.6.1 Second-stage juvenile
2.7 Morphological Methods
2.8 Minimum Standards for Describing a New Species
3 Taxonomy, Identification and Principal Species
3.1.2 Major reference sources
3.1.3 Rate of species descriptions
3.1.4 Recent advances in characterization
3.3 Subfamily and Genus Diagnosis
3.4 List of Species and Synonyms
3.5.4 Scanning electron microscopy
3.5.5 Diagnostic characters
3.5.6 Root-knot or cyst-forming nematode?
3.5.7 Differential host test
3.5.9 Isozyme phenotyping
3.5.10 Molecular diagnostics
3.6.1 Meloidogyne arenaria
3.6.3 Meloidogyne incognita
3.6.4 Meloidogyne javanica
3.6.5 Meloidogyne acronea
3.6.6 Meloidogyne chitwoodi
3.6.7 Meloidogyne enterolobii
3.6.8 Meloidogyne ethiopica
3.6.10 Meloidogyne fallax
3.6.11 Meloidogyne graminicola
3.6.12 Meloidogyne paranaensis
3.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
4 Biochemical and Molecular Identification
4.3.2 Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
4.3.3 Satellite DNA probes and PCR
4.3.6 Sequence characterized amplified regions (SCARs)
4.3.7 Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
4.4 Conclusions and Future Directions
5 Molecular Taxonomy and Phylogeny
5.2 The History of Reconstructing Meloidogyne Phylogenetic History
5.3 Molecular Phylogenetics: Genetic Markers and Evolutionary Relationships
5.3.1 Nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences
5.3.2 Orthologous nuclear genes
5.4 A Meloidogyne Supertree Analysis
5.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
6 Hatch and Host Location
6.2.1 General hatching response
6.2.3 Dependence on root exudates
6.2.4 Egg numbers and embryogenesis
6.3 Movement Through Soil
6.3.1 How root-knot juveniles move
6.3.2 Factors influencing rate of movement
6.3.3 Plant-independent factors influencing the direction of nematode movement
6.4.1 General considerations
6.4.4 Uniquely plant-specific compounds
6.5 Nematode Changes and Responses at the Root–Soil Interface
6.5.1 Chemical communication at the root–soil interface
6.5.2 Perturbing chemosensory perception
6.5.3 Surface cuticle changes in response to environmental signals
6.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
7 Invasion, Feeding and Development
7.2 Root-knot Nematode Life Cycle
7.4 Compatible Interactions with Resistant Plants: the Case of Virulent Root-knot Nematodes
7.5 (A)virulence Determinants and Pathogenicity Factors: Root-knot Nematode Effectors with Dual Function?
7.6 Tools for Molecular and Functional Analysis of Root-knot Nematode Parasitism
7.7 Giant Cell Development
7.8 Cytoskeleton Organization and Cell Cycle Progression During Giant Cell Ontogenesis
7.9 Extensive Cell Wall Modifications to Build Up Giant Cells
7.10 Suppression of Plant Defence Associated with Giant Cell Development
7.11 Major Reprogramming of Plant Metabolism and Transport
7.12 Comparison between Meloidogyne Parasitism and Symbiotic Rhizobia in Medicago
7.13 Conclusions and Future Directions
8 Reproduction, Physiology and Biochemistry
8.2 Reproduction and Moulting
8.2.1 Reproduction mechanisms and cytogenetics
8.3.2 Effects of osmotic and ionic stress
8.3.3 Secretory–excretory products
8.4.3 Amino acids and sugars
8.4.5 Complex carbohydrates and lipids
8.5 Sensory Perception and Neurotransmission
8.6 Conclusions and Future Directions
9.2 Dormancy, Diapause and Quiescence
9.3 Embryonation and the Egg Mass Environment
9.3.2 The effect of soil moisture
9.3.3 The effect of soil aeration
9.3.4 Other roles for the egg mass
9.3.5 The egg mass and dormancy
9.4 Temperature Effects on Development of Eggs and Infective Stages
9.4.1 Temperature as an isolated factor
9.4.2 Low temperature survival
9.4.3 The influence of soil type and moisture content on temperature effects
9.4.4 A case study investigating factors affecting infectivity of Meloidogyne javanica J2
9.4.5 Overwintering of adult stages
9.4.6 Diapause in Meloidogyne naasi
9.4.7 A critique of de Guiran’s use of ‘diapause’ as an explanation of late-emerging J2
9.5 The Effect of Osmotic Stress on Infective Stages in Soil
9.6 Survival Mechanisms Deployed: Life History Strategies in Meloidogyne Species
9.6.1 Meloidogyne javanica
9.6.2 Meloidogyne arenaria
9.6.3 Meloidogyne incognita
9.7 Conclusions and Future Directions
10 Interactions with Other Pathogens
10.2 Interactions with Microbial Pathogens
10.2.1 Vascular wilt pathogens
10.2.2 Root-rot pathogens
10.2.3 More recently described disease complexes
10.3 Interactions with Other Plant-parasitic Nematodes
10.3.1 Interactions and parasitic habits
10.3.2 Sequential infections
10.3.3 Additive interaction
10.3.5 Interactions between Meloidogyne species
10.4 Basis for Interactions
10.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
11 Population Dynamics and Damage Levels
11.2 Patterns of Population Dynamics
11.3 Factors Affecting Population Dynamics
11.3.1 The nematode species
11.3.2 Crop and cropping system
11.4 Modelling Population Dynamics
11.6 Pattern of Nematode Damage to Crop Plants
11.7 Factors Affecting Nematode Damage
11.7.1 Nematode species and population level
11.7.2 Soil and environmental conditions
11.7.3 Crop and cropping system
11.8 Modelling Damage Levels
11.9 Implementing Experiments to Assess Nematode Dynamics and Crop Damage
11.9.1 Preparation and type of inoculum
11.9.2 Glasshouse experiments
11.9.5 Maintenance of experiments
11.9.6 Fitting the models to data
11.10 Yield Loss Assessment
11.11 Importance of Information on Nematode Damage Levels and Dynamics in Management Strategies
11.12 Conclusions and Future Directions
12 Sampling Root-knot Nematodes
12.2 Nematode Spatial Patterns
12.3 Characterizing Sample Accuracy and Reliability
12.5 Extracting Nematodes from Soil
12.6 Extracting Nematodes from Plant Material
12.8 Other Plant Symptoms
12.9 Research to Optimize Sampling Programmes for Root-knot Nematodes
12.10 Examples of Results from Sampling Programmes
12.10.2 Field experimentation
12.11 Conclusions and Future Directions
13 Mechanisms and Genetics of Resistance
13.2 Sources and Inheritance of Root-knot Nematode Resistance
13.3 Mechanisms of Resistance to Pathogens in Plants
13.4 Structure and Function of the Nematode Resistance Gene Mi-1
13.5 What is Known About Other Nematode R-Genes
13.6 Nematode Virulence and Durability of Resistance
13.7 Management of Resistance and Virulence in the Field
13.8 Conclusions and Future Directions
14 Development of Resistant Varieties
14.1 Introduction – the Plus Side of Resistance
14.2 Introduction – a Look at the Other Side
14.3 Successful Use of Resistance – Room for Wider Deployment
14.4 Planning a Resistance-breeding Programme
14.4.1 Identification of the root-knot nematode species present
14.4.2 Establishing pure cultures
14.4.3 Nematode variability
14.4.5 Sources of resistance
14.4.7 Recurrent selection
14.5 Screening Methods, Including Marker-assisted Selection
14.6 Quality of Candidate Resistant Material
14.7 Engineered Resistance
14.8 Conclusions and Future Directions
15 Plant Biotechnology and Control
15.2 Proteinase Inhibitors
15.3 Cry Proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis as Biopesticides
15.3.2 Activity of Cry proteins against nematodes
15.3.3 Activity of Cry6A against Meloidogyne incognita
15.3.4 Resistance to Cry proteins in nematodes
15.4 In planta RNAi to Target Plant-parasitic Nematodes
15.6 The Mi-1-mediated Resistance Response
15.7 Efficacy and Durability
15.8 Promoters for Transgenic Control of Meloidogyne
15.10 Developing World Needs
15.10.1 The need for biotechnology to control Meloidogyne in the developing world
15.10.2 Appropriate technology
15.11 Conclusions and Future Directions
15.11.1 Proteinase inhibitors
15.11.4 Commercial prospects of deployment of transgenic resistance to Meloidogyne
15.11.5 Prospects of uptake in support of food security
15.11.6 Rate of uptake possible
16 The Complete Sequence of the Genomes of Meloidogyne incognita and Meloidogyne hapla
16.2 Meloidogyne incognita Genome
16.2.1 A genome constituted by pairs of homologous but divergent segments
16.2.2 The gene content of a plant-parasitic nematode
16.2.3 Identifying plant parasitism genes
16.2.4 A nematode adapted to a privileged plant host environment
16.2.5 Does the Caenorhabditis elegans genome reflect nematode lifestyle diversity?
16.2.6 Exploration of new anti-parasitic drug targets
16.3 Meloidogyne hapla Genome
16.3.1 General characterization of the genome
16.3.2 Estimation of gene numbers
16.3.4 Genome organization
16.3.5 Pathway conservation with free-living nematodes
16.4 Conclusions and Future Directions
17 Biological Control Using Microbial Pathogens, Endophytes and Antagonists
17.2 Bacterial Pathogens and Antagonists
17.2.1 Endoparasitic bacteria
17.2.2 Rhizosphere bacteria
17.2.3 Endophytic bacteria
17.3 Fungal Pathogens and Antagonists
17.3.1 Nematophagous fungi
17.3.2 Saprophagous fungi
17.4 Commercialization and Future Directions
17.4.1 Commercial products
17.4.2 The development of a commercial product
17.4.4 Enhancement strategies
17.4.5 Transgenic approaches
18 Current and Future Management Strategies in Intensive Crop Production Systems
18.2 Current Control Practices
18.2.3 Biological control and host plant resistance
18.3 Current Management Practices
18.3.1 Significance of diagnostic sampling and government regulation
18.3.2 Implementation of management strategies
18.4 Future Opportunities and Challenges
18.4.1 Emerging control options
18.4.2 Emerging management options
18.5 Conclusions and Future Directions
19 Current and Future Management Strategies in Resource-poor Farming
19.1 Introduction and Definitions
19.4.1 Healthy planting material
19.4.2 Seed and seedling supply
19.5.1 Removal of infected material
19.5.4 Mulching and soil amendments
19.6.3 Cover crops (improved fallow)
19.6.4 Antagonistic or trap crops
19.9.1 Past and current nematicide use
19.10 Conclusions and Future Directions
Nematode Genus and Species Index
Root-knot Nematodes
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