Chapter
1.4 Lignocellulosic Polymer Composites: Classification and Applications
2 Interfacial Adhesion in Natural Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
2.2 PLA-Based Wood-Flour Composites
2.3 Optimizing Interfacial Adhesion in Wood-Polymer Composites
2.3.1 Chemical Modification
2.3.2 Physical Modification
2.4 Evaluation of Interfacial Properties
2.4.1 Microscopic Characterisation
2.4.1.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy
2.4.1.2 Atomic Force Microscopy
2.4.2 Spectroscopic Techniques
2.4.2.1 Acoustic Emission Spectroscopy (AES)
3 Research on Cellulose-Based Polymer Composites in Southeast Asia
3.2 Sugar Palm (Arenga pinnata)
3.3 Oil Palm (Elaeis Guineensis)
3.4 Durian (Durio Zibethinus)
3.5 Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes)
4 Hybrid Vegetable/Glass Fiber Composites
4.2 Vegetable Fiber/Glass Fiber Thermoplastic Composites
4.3 Intra-Laminate Vegetable Fiber/glass Fiber Thermoset Composites
4.4 Inter-Laminate Vegetable Fiber/glass Fiber Thermoset Composites
5 Flax-Based Reinforcement Requirements for Obtaining Structural and Complex Shape Lignocellulosic Polymer Composite Parts
5.2 Experimental Procedures
5.2.2 Flax Fabric Testing
5.2.2.1 Biaxial Tensile Test
5.2.3 Sheet Forming Device for Dry Textile Reinforcement
5.3 Results and Discussion
5.3.1 Tensile Behavior of Reinforcement Components: Flax Tow Scale
5.3.1.1 Flax Tow Tensile Behavior
5.3.1.2 Effect of Gauge Length on Tensile Properties
5.3.1.3 Evolution of Failure Behavior
5.3.2 Tensile Behavior of Reinforcement Components: Scale of Fabric
5.3.3 Global Preform Analysis
5.3.4 Analysis of Tensile Behavior of Tows During Forming
6 Typical Brazilian Lignocellulosic Natural Fibers as Reinforcement of Thermosetting and Thermoplastics Matrices
6.2.1 Preparation of cellulose and lignin from sugarcane bagasse
6.2.2 Surface Treatment for Coconut Fibers
6.2.3 Chemical Characterization of Fibers and Lignin
6.2.3.1 Carbohydrates and Lignin Determination
6.2.3.2 Determination of Ashes Content in Lignin
6.2.3.3 Elemental Analysis of Lignin
6.2.3.4 Total Acid Determination in Lignin
6.2.3.5 Total Hydroxyls in Lignin
6.2.3.6 Phenolic Hydroxyls in Lignin
6.2.3.7 Determination of Carbonyl Groups in Lignin
6.2.3.8 Analysis of the Molecular Weight Distribution of Lignin
6.2.4 Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Applied to Fibers and Lignin
6.2.5 Preparation of Thermosetting and Thermoplastic Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers
6.2.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
6.2.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
6.2.8 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) Characterization
6.3 Results and Discussion
6.3.1 Chemical Composition and Characterization of Sugarcane Bagasse and Coconut Fibers
6.3.2 Chemical Characterization of Lignin Extracted from Sugarcane Bagasse
6.3.3 Modification of Coconut Fibers by Chemical Treatment
6.3.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry Applied to Coconut Fibers
6.3.5 Composites with Thermoplastic and Thermosetting as Matrices
6.3.6 Morphological Characterization for Composites Reinforced with Cellulose and Lignin from Sugarcane Bagasse and Coconut Fibers
6.3.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis for Composites and Fibers
6.3.8 Differential Scanning Calorimetry Studies for Composites and Fibers
7 Cellulose-Based Starch Composites: Structure and Properties
7.2 Starch and Cellulose Biobased Polymers for Composite Formulations
7.3 Chemical Modification of Starch
7.4 Cellulose-Based Starch Composites
7.4.1.1 Preparation of Starch Microparticles (StM) and Chemically Modified Starch Microparticles (CStM)
7.4.1.2 Determination of the Molar Degree of Substitution of CMSt
7.4.1.3 Preparation of CMSt/St/cellulose Filler Composite Films
7.4.2 Characterization of Starch Polymer Matrix
7.4.2.1 FTIR Spectroscopy Investigation
7.4.2.2 X-ray Diffraction Analysis
7.4.3 Properties Investigation
7.4.3.1 Opacity Measurements
7.4.3.2 Water Sorption Properties
7.4.3.3 Mechanical Properties
7.4.3.3 Thermal Properties
7.5 Conclusions/Perspectives
8 Spectroscopy Analysis and Applications of Rice Husk and Gluten Husk Using Computational Chemistry
8.1.1 Computational Chemistry
8.1.1.1 Molecular Mechanics Methods
8.1.1.2 Semi-Empirical Methods
8.1.2 Lignocellulosic Materials
8.1.2.2 Wheat Gluten Husk
8.1.4.1 Mechanism of Action
8.2.1 Geometry Optimization
8.2.3 Electrostatic Potential
8.3 Results and Discussions
8.3.1 Geometry Optimization
8.3.3 Electrostatic Potential
8.3.4 Absorption of Benzophenone
8.3.4.1 Geometry Optimization
8.3.4.3 Electrostatic Potential
8.3.5 Absorption of Glibenclamide
8.3.5.1 Geometry Optimization
8.3.5.3 Electrostatic Potential
9 Oil Palm Fiber Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Properties
9.2.2 Morphology and Properties
9.3 Oil Palm Fiber Composites
9.3.1 Oil Palm Fiber-Natural Rubber Composites
9.3.1.1 Mechanical Properties
9.3.1.2 Water Absorption Characteristics
9.3.1.3 Thermal Properties
9.3.1.4 Electrical Properties
9.3.2 Oil Palm Fiber-Polypropylene Composites
9.3.2.1 Mechanical Properties
9.3.2.2 Water Absorption Characteristics
9.3.2.3 Degradation/weathering
9.3.3 Oil Palm Fiber-Polyurethane Composites
9.3.3.1 Mechanical Properties
9.3.3.2 Water Absorption Characteristics
9.3.3.3 Degradation/weathering
9.3.4 Oil Palm Fiber-Polyvinyl Chloride Composites
9.3.4.1 Mechanical Properties
9.3.4.2 Thermal Properties
9.3.5 Oil Palm Fiber-Polyester Composites
9.3.5.1 Physical Properties
9.3.5.2 Mechanical Properties
9.3.5.3 Water Absorption Characteristics
9.3.5.4 Degradation/weathering
9.3.6 Oil Palm Fiber-Phenol Formaldehyde Composites
9.3.6.1 Physical Properties
9.3.6.2 Mechanical Properties
9.3.6.3 Water Absorption Characteristics
9.3.6.4 Thermal Properties
9.3.6.5 Degradation/weathering
9.3.7 Oil Palm Fiber-Polystyrene Composites
9.3.7.1 Mechanical Properties
9.3.8 Oil Palm Fiber-Epoxy Composites
9.3.8.1 Mechanical Properties
9.3.9 Oil Palm Fiber-LLDPE Composites
9.3.9.1 Physical Properties
9.3.9.2 Electrical Properties
9.3.9.3 Mechanical Properties
9.3.9.4 Thermal Properties
10 Lignocellulosic Polymer Composites: Processing, Characterization and Properties
10.2.1 Effect of Modification on Mechanical Properties of Palm Fiber Composites
10.2.2 Alkali Treatment and Coupling Agent
Part II: CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF CELLULOSIC MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED COMPOSITES
11 Agro-Residual Fibers as Potential Reinforcement Elements for Biocomposites
11.2.2 Corn Stalk, Cob and Husks
11.2.4 Banana Stem, Leaf, Bunch
11.3 Fiber Extraction methods
11.3.1 Biological Fiber Extraction Methods
11.3.2 Chemical Fiber Separation Methods
11.3.3 Mechanical Fiber Separation Methods
11.4 Classification of Plant Fibers
11.5 Properties of Plant Fibers
11.5.1 Chemical Properties of Plant Fibers
11.6. Properties of Agro-Based Fibers
11.6.1 Physical Properties
11.6.2 Mechanical Properties
11.6.3 Some Important Features of Plant Fibers
11.6.3.2 Moisture Absorption
11.6.3.3 Dimensional stability
11.6.3.4 Thermal Stability
11.6.3.4 Photo Degradation
11.6.3.5 Microbial Resistance
11.7 Modification of Agro-Based Fibers
11.7.1 Physical Treatments
11.7.2 Chemical Treatments
11.7.2.3 Silane Treatment
11.7.2.5 Enzyme Treatment
11.7.2.7 Graft Copolymerization
12 Surface Modification Strategies for Cellulosic Fibers
12.2 Special Treatments during Primary Processing
12.2.1 Microwave Curing of Biocomposites
12.2.2 Chemical Treatments of Fibers During Primary Processing of Biocomposites
12.2.2.1 Alkaline Treatment
12.2.2.2 Silane Treatment
12.3 Other Chemical Treatments
13 Effect of Chemical Functionalization on Functional Properties of Cellulosic Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites
13.2 Chemical Functionalization of Cellulosic Fibers
13.2.3 Composites Fabrication
13.3 Results and Discussion
13.3.1 Mechanical Properties
13.3.1.1 Tensile Strength
13.3.1.2 Compressive Strength
13.3.1.3 Flexural Strength
13.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis
13.3.5 Evaluation of Physico-Chemical Properties
13.3.5.1 Water Absorption
13.3.5.2 Chemical Resistance
13.3.5.3 Moisture Absorption
13.3.6 Limiting Oxygen Index (LOI) Test
14 Chemical Modification and Properties of Cellulose-Based Polymer Composites
14.3 Benzene Diazonium Salt Treatment
14.4 o-hydroxybenzene Diazonium Salt Treatment
14.5 Succinic Anhydride Treatment
14.6 Acrylonitrile Treatment
14.7 Maleic Anhydride Treatment
14.9 Some other Chemical Treatment with Natural Fibers
14.9.1 Epoxides Treatment
14.9.2 Alkyl Halide Treatment
14.9.3 β- Propiolactone Treatments
14.9.4 Cyclic Anhydride Treatments
14.9.5 Oxidation of Natural Fiber
Part III: PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CELLULOSE/ POLYMER COMPOSITES
15 Weathering of Lignocellulosic Polymer Composites
15.2 Wood and Plant Fibers
15.3.1 Lignocellulosic Fibers
15.3.3 Methods for Improving UV Resistance of LPCs
15.4.1 Lignocellulosic Fibers
15.4.3 Methods for Improving Moisture Resistance of LPCs
15.5 Testing of Weathering Properties
15.6 Studies on Weathering of LPCs
15.6.1 Lignocellulosic Fibers
15.6.2 Lignocellulosic Thermoplastic Composites
15.6.2.1 Effects of Photostabilizers and Surface Treatments
15.6.3 Lignocellulosic Thermoset Composites
15.6.4 Lignocellulosic Biodegradable Polymer Composites
16 Effect of Layering Pattern on the Physical, Mechanical and Acoustic Properties of Luffa/Coir Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Novolac Hybrid Composites
16.2.2 Synthesis of Epoxy Novolac Resin (ENR)
16.2.3 Fabrication of Composite Materials via Hot-pressing
16.3 Characterization of ENR-Based Luffa/Coir Hybrid Composites
16.3.1 Dimensional Stability Test
16.3.2 Mechanical Strength Analysis
16.3.3 Sound Absorption Test
16.3.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
16.4 Results and Discussion
16.4.1 Water Absorption Test
16.4.2 Thickness Swelling Test
16.4.3 Effect of Different Configurations on Mechanical Properties
16.4.4 Sound Absorption Performances
16.4.5 Study of Hybrid Composite Microstructure
17 Fracture Mechanism of Wood-Plastic Composites (WPCS): Observation and Analysis
17.1.1 Fracture Behavior of Particulate Composites
17.1.1.1 Particle Size, Volume Fraction, and Fillers Orientation
17.1.1.2 Fillers & Polymers Characteristics
17.3 Toughness Characterization
17.4 Fracture Observation
17.5.1 Macroscale Modeling
17.5.2 Multi-scale Modeling
17.5.3 Cohesive Zone Model (CZM)
17.5.4 Other Numerical Methods
18 Mechanical Behavior of Biocomposites under Different Operating Environments
18.2 Classification and Structure of Natural Fibers
18.3 Moisture Absorption Behavior of Biocomposites
18.4 Mechanical Characterization of Biocomposites in a Humid Environment
18.5 Oil Absorption Behavior and Its Effects on Mechanical Properties of Biocomposites
18.6 UV-Irradiation and Its Effects on Mechanical Properties of Biocomposites
18.7. Mechanical Behavior of Biocomposites Subjected to Thermal Loading
18.8 Biodegradation Behavior and Mechanical Characterization of Soil Buried Biocomposites
Part IV: APPLICATIONS OF CELLULOSE/ POLYMER COMPOSITES
19 Cellulose Composites for Construction Applications
19.1 Polymers Reinforced with Natural Fibers for Construction Applications
19.1.1 Durability of Polymer-Reinforced with Natural Fibers
19.1.2 Classification of Polymer Composites Reinforced with Natural Fibers
19.2 Portland Cement Matrix Reinforced with Natural Fibers for Construction Applications
19.2.1 Modifications on Cement Matrix to Increase Durability
19.2.1.1 Pozzolanic Aditions
19.2.1.2 Carbonation of Cement Matrix
19.2.2 Modifications on Natural Fibers to Increase Durability of Cement Composites
19.2.3 Application of Cement Composites Reinforced with Cellulosic Fibers
19.2.4 Micro and Nanofibers Used to Reinforce Cement Matrices
20 Jute: An Interesting Lignocellulosic Fiber for New Generation Applications
20.2 Reinforcing Biofibers
20.2.1 Chemical Constituents and Structural Aspects of Lignocellulosic Fiber
20.2.2 Properties of Jute
20.2.3 Cost Aspects, Availability and Sustainable Development
20.2.4 Surface Treatments
20.2.5.1 Compression Molding
20.2.5.2 Resin Transfer Molding
20.2.5.3 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM)
20.2.5.4 Injection Molding
20.2.5.5 Direct Long-Fiber Thermoplastic Molding (D-LFT)
20.3 Biodegradable Polymers
20.4 Jute-Reinforced Biocomposites
21 Cellulose-Based Polymers for Packaging Applications
21.1.1 Packaging Materials
21.1.3 Problems of Plastics
21.2 Cellulose as a Polymeric Biomaterial
21.2.1 Cellulose Extraction
21.2.2 Cellulosic Composites (Green Composites)
21.2.3 Cellulose Derivatives Composites
21.2.3.3 Regenerated Cellulose Fibers
21.2.3.4 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
21.3 Cellulose as Coatings and Films Material
21.4 Nanocellulose or Cellulose Nanocomposites
21.5 Quality Control Tests
22 Applications of Kenaf-Lignocellulosic Fiber in Polymer Blends
22.3 Kenaf: Malaysian Cultivation
22.4 Kenaf Fibers and Composites
22.5 Kenaf Fiber Reinforced Low Density Polyethylene/Thermoplastic Sago Starch Blends
22.6 The Effects of Kenaf Fiber Treatment on the Properties of LDPE/TPSS Blends
22.7 Outlook and Future Trends
23 Application of Natural Fiber as Reinforcement in Recycled Polypropylene Biocomposites
23.1.1 Natural Fibers – An Introduction
23.1.2 Chemical Composition of Natural Fiber
23.1.3 Classification of Natural Fibers
23.1.4 Surface Modification of Natural Fibers
23.1.4.1 Alkali Treatment
23.1.4.2 Silane Treatment (SiH4)
23.1.4.3 Acetylation of Natural Fibers
23.1.5 Properties of Natural Fibers
23.2 Recycled Polypropylene (RPP) - A matrix for Natural Fiber Composites
23.3 Natural Fiber-Based Composites – An Overview
23.3.1 Sisal Fiber–Based Recycled Polypropylene (RPP) Composites
23.3.1.1 Mechanical and Dynamic Mechanical Properties of Sisal RPP Composites
23.3.1.2 Thermal Properties Sisal RPP Composites
23.3.1.3 Weathering and Its Effect on Mechanical Properties of Sisal RPP Composites
23.3.1.4 Fracture Analysis of RPP and its Composites
Lignocellulosic Polymer Composites
：Processing, Characterization, and Properties
( Polymer Science and Plastics Engineering )
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