Chapter
2 - Sampling procedures for securing evidence for waterborne oil spill identifications
2.1.1 - Purpose of sampling in connection to spilled oil in the Marine Environment
2.1.2 - Background guidelines
2.2 - General remarks and requirements for sampling
2.2.3.3 - Reference (blank) samples
2.2.3.4 - Sample contamination
2.3.2 - Sample sealing, labeling, and documentation
2.3.3 - Packing and shipping of oil samples
2.4 - Sampling organization
2.4.1 - Sampling coordinator
2.4.2 - The duties of the sampling coordinator
2.5 - Oil sampling in marine environments
2.5.1 - Surface layer of liquefied oil or w/o emulsion
2.5.1.1 - Polyethylene cornet bag
2.5.1.2 - Use of a sampling bucket with a line
2.5.2 - Highly viscous oil, oil globules, and tar balls on sea surface
2.5.2.1 - Use of an aluminum pan
2.5.2.2 - Use of a sample bottle directly
2.5.3 - Sampling of thin oil films
2.5.3.1 - Sampling close to the surface
2.5.3.2 - Sampling of oil film with a Teflon net attached to a fishing rod
2.5.4 - Sampling from aerial platforms
2.5.4.1 - Dropping sampling buoys from aircraft
2.5.4.2 - Use of helicopter sampling device
2.5.5 - Sampling on beaches
2.5.6 - Sampling from oiled animals
2.6 - Sampling onboard vessels/suspected sources
2.6.2 - Safety procedures – general advice and directions
2.6.3 - Sampling techniques – sources onboard vessels
2.6.3.1 - Sampling through the outlet pipe in the bottom of the tank
2.6.3.2 - Sampling in tanks through sounding pipes
2.6.3.3 - Sampling in tanks through ullage port
2.6.3.4 - Using the Teflon net
3 - Chemical fingerprinting methods and factors affecting petroleum fingerprints in the environment
3.2 - Methods for chemical fingerprinting petroleum
3.2.1 - Historical perspective
3.2.2 - Tier 1 – chemical fingerprinting via GC/FID
3.2.3 - Tier 2 – chemical fingerprinting via GC/MS
3.2.3.1 - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
3.2.3.2 - Petroleum biomarkers
3.2.4 - Quality assurance and quality control
3.2.4.1 - Quality control
3.2.4.2 - Quality assurance
3.3 - Factors affecting the chemical fingerprints of petroleum
3.3.1 - Primary control – crude oil genesis
3.3.2 - Secondary controls – petroleum refining
3.3.2.2 - Distillate fuels
3.3.2.4 - Lubricating oils
3.3.2.5 - Oily wastes/bilge water discharges
3.3.3 - Tertiary controls – weathering
3.3.3.5 - Mousse formation
3.3.3.6 - De-waxing and wax enrichment
3.3.4 - Tertiary controls – mixing with “background”
3.3.4.1 - What is “background”?
3.3.4.2 - Recognizing and establishing background
3.3.4.3 - Naturally occurring background hydrocarbons
3.3.4.3.1 - Vascular plant debris
3.3.4.3.2 - Particulate coal and wood charcoal
3.3.4.3.3 - Natural oil seeps
3.3.4.4 - Anthropogenic background hydrocarbons
3.3.4.4.1 - Urban and river runoff
4 - Petroleum biomarker fingerprinting for oil spill characterization and source identification
4.2.1 - Chemical composition of oil
4.2.1.1 - Saturates or alkanes
4.2.1.3 - Aromatic hydrocarbons
4.2.1.4 - Polar compounds
4.2.1.5 - Resin compounds
4.2.2 - Physical properties of oil
4.3 - Chemistry of petroleum biomaker compounds
4.3.1 - The “isoprene rule” and petroleum biomarker families
4.3.1.1 - Acyclic terpenoids or isoprenoids
4.3.1.2 - Cyclic terpenoids
4.3.2 - Labeling and nomenclature of biomarkers
4.3.2.2 - Asymmetric (or chiral) carbons and a and b stereoisomers
4.3.2.3 - R and S stereoisomers
4.3.3 - Biomarker genesis
4.4 - Analytical methodologies for petroleum biomarker fingerprinting
4.4.1 - Analysis methods for biomarker fingerprinting
4.4.2 - Capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
4.4.2.1 - Benchtop quadrupole GC–MS
4.4.2.2 - Triple quadrupole GC–MS–MS
4.4.3 - Sample collection, extraction, cleanup, and fractionation
4.4.3.2 - Sample preparation
4.4.3.3 - Silica gel column cleanup and fractionation
4.4.3.4 - Internal standards and quantification of biomarkers
4.4.4 - Quality assurance and quality control
4.4.5 - Oil spill identification protocols
4.4.5.1 - CEN oil spill identification protocol
4.4.5.2 - ESTS tiered analytical approach
4.4.6 - Mass spectra and identification of biomarkers
4.4.6.1 - Mass spectra of common petroleum biomarkers
4.4.6.2 - Identification of vegetation biomarkers
4.5 - Fingerprinting petroleum biomarkers
4.5.1 - Biomarker distributions in crude oils
4.5.2 - Biomarker distributions in petroleum products
4.5.3 - Biomarker distributions in lubricating oils
4.5.4 - Biomarker distributions in oil fractions with different carbon number range
4.5.5 - Aromatic steranes in oils and petroleum products
4.5.6 - Sesquiterpanes in oils and petroleum products
4.5.7 - Diamondoid compounds in oils and lighter petroleum products
4.5.8 - Application of biomarker fingerprintings to oil spill studies
4.5.8.1 - Spill samples are different in general chemical composition
4.5.8.2 - Spill samples are very similar in general chemical composition
4.5.8.3 - Source differentiation of petrogenic, pyrogenic, and biogenic hydrocarbons in Canadian oil sands environmemtal sa...
4.5.9 - Source-specific biomarkers
4.5.10 - Using diagnostic ratios and cross-plots of biomarkers for source identification of spill oils
4.5.10.1 - Diagnostic ratios of biomarkers
4.5.10.2 - Cross-plots of biomarker ratios
4.6 - Effects of weathering on biomarker fingerprinting
4.6.1 - Processes affecting the fate and behavior of spilled oil
4.6.2 - Weathering effects on oil chemical composition and biomarkers fingerprinting
4.6.2.1 - Effects of physical weathering (evaporation) on oil chemical composition and biomarker fingerprinting
4.6.2.2 - Effects of biodegradation on oil Chemical composition and biomarker fingerprinting
4.6.3 - Determination of weathered percentages using biomarkers
4.6.4 - A case study: application of multiple criteria fingerprinting approach and biomarkers for source identification and...
4.6.4.1 - Product type-screening
4.6.4.2 - Characterization of bicyclic sesquiterpanes
4.6.4.3 - Confirmation of source identification by quantitative evaluation of alkylated PAHs and pentacyclic terpanes and s...
5 - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon homolog and isomer fingerprinting
5.1.1 - Hydrocarbon sources
5.1.1.2 - Modern anthropogenic effects
5.1.1.2.1 - Generation of pyrogenic PAHs
5.2 - Hydrocarbon source signatures
5.3.1 - Sample extraction
5.3.2.1 - Alumina solid-phase cleanup of polar organics
5.3.2.2 - Copper solid-phase cleanup of sulfur
5.3.3 - High-resolution hydrocarbon fingerprints
5.3.4 - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
5.3.5 - Saturated hydrocarbons
5.3.6 - Reference samples
5.4 - Dominant hydrocarbon signatures
5.4.1 - Petrogenic products
5.4.2 - Pyrogenic products
5.5 - Saturated hydrocarbon signatures
5.5.1 - Environmental weathering
5.5.2 - Feedstock residues
5.6 - Aromatic hydrocarbon signatures
5.6.4 - Quantitative PAH ratios
5.6.5 - Qualitative PAH patterns
5.6.5.1 - Naphthalene isomer patterns
5.6.5.2 - Phenanthrene and anthracene isomer patterns
5.6.5.3 - Dibenzothiophene isomer patterns
5.6.5.4 - Fluoranthene and pyrene isomer patterns
5.6.5.5 - Benz[a]anthracene and chrysene isomer patterns
5.6.5.6 - Naphthobenzothiophene isomer patterns
6 - Polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocycles as source diagnostics of petroleum pollutants in the marine environment
6.2 - Sulfur compounds in crude oil and petroleum products
6.3 - Influence of refinery processes on PASH patterns
6.4 - PASH stability in the marine environment
6.5 - Petroleum PASH analysis techniques
6.5.1 - Selective detection in gas chromatography
6.5.1.1 - Flame photometric detection
6.5.1.2 - Atomic emission detection
6.5.1.3 - Sulfur chemiluminescence detection
6.5.1.4 - Mass-selective detection
6.5.2 - Class separation of PAH and PASH
6.5.3 - Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography
6.5.4 - Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry
6.5.5 - Quantification of PASH
6.6 - Petroleum PASH markers in environmental forensic investigations
6.6.1 - PASHs as source markers
6.6.2 - PASHs as weathering markers
7 - Forensic studies of naphthenic acids fraction compounds in oil sands environmental samples and crude oil
7.2 - Applications of mass spectrometric techniques in forensic investigations
7.3 - Ultra–high-resolution Fourier transform mass spectrometry
7.3.1 - Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry
7.3.2 - Orbitrap Fourier transform mass spectrometry
7.4 - Gas chromatography Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry
7.5 - Two-dimensional gas chromatography mass spectrometry
7.6 - Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC–MS)
7.7 - Other analytical tools for oil sand environmental samples and crude oil forensics
7.7.1 - Capillary electrophoresis
7.7.2 - Condensed phase membrane introduction mass spectrometry
7.7.3 - Differential mobility spectrometry
7.7.4 - Ion mobility mass spectrometry
7.8 - Forensic study of NAFCs
7.8.1 - Oil sand environmental samples
8 - Applications of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) in studying the source, transport, and f...
8.1.1 - The need for high-resolution separations
8.1.2 - Multidimensional methods
8.2 - Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC)
8.2.1 - Modulation techniques
8.2.3 - GC × GC chromatogram
8.2.4 - Peak identity and chromatogram structure
8.3.2 - Comparing chromatograms
8.4 - GC–MS, GC × GC–FID, and GC × GC–TOF–MS method comparisons
8.5 - GC × GC biomarker analysis
8.5.1 - Visual GC × GC comparisons of crude oil
8.5.2 - Quantitative GC × GC analysis of biomarkers
8.5.3 - GC × GC–TOF–MS analysis of biomarkers
8.6 - GC × GC insight to physical and chemical oil weathering
8.7 - GC × GC for discovery
8.7.1 - GC × GC of archaeal biomarkers
8.7.2 - Bangladesh furnace oil
8.7.3 - Beyond GC separations – the role of high-resolution FT–ICR–MS
8.7.4 - Bakken crudes and diluted bitumens
9 - Oil fingerprinting analysis using gas chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight (GC–QTOF)
9.2 - Principle of GC–QTOF
9.2.1 - Instrument design
9.2.2 - Theory of operation
9.2.3 - Mass resolution and mass accuracy
9.3 - GC–QTOF in oil fingerprinting analysis
9.3.1 - Performance of QTOF–MS
9.3.2 - Characterization of analytes using GC–QTOF
9.3.3 - GC–QTOF analysis of petroleum biomarkers
9.3.4 - GC–QTOF analysis of PAHs
9.4 - Forensic oil identification: a case study
10 - Application of isotopic compositions in fugitive petroleum product identification and correlation
10.1.1 - Advantages of isotopic compositional evidence
10.1.2 - Effects of weathering on molecular and isotopic composition
10.2 - Isotopic compositions and their measurement
10.2.1 - Physical characteristics of isotopes
10.2.2 - Expression of isotopic composition
10.2.3 - Methods for measuring isotopic composition
10.2.3.1 - Measurements of bulk isotopic composition
10.2.3.2 - Measurements of compound-specific isotopic composition
10.3 - Bulk isotope ratios
10.3.1 - Geochemistry and isotopic composition
10.3.1.1 - Isotopic composition: distinguishing marine and Nonmarine petroleum origins
10.3.1.2 - Weathering, fractionation and molecular weight
10.3.1.3 - Isotopic composition and Petroleum Age
10.3.2 - Applications of isotopic compositional analyses to oil spill forensics
10.3.2.1 - East Texas industrial area
10.3.2.2 - Los Angeles beach tars
10.3.2.3 - South Texas shore contaminated by multiple sources
10.3.2.4 - Exxon Valdez: not the source for most tar balls in Prince William Sound
10.3.2.5 - American Trader: principal contaminant to the nearby coast
10.3.2.6 - Tar balls on North American coast and a passing ship
10.3.2.7 - Tracking a land release using additional chemical data
10.4 - Compound-specific isotope analysis
10.4.1 - Origin of compound-specific isotopic trends
10.4.1.1 - d13C and number of carbons in n-alkanes
10.4.2.3 - Australian beach tars
10.4.2.4 - Evidence from bird feathers – light oil
10.4.2.5 - Evidence from bird feathers – heavy oil
10.4.2.6 - Seychelles Islands beach tars
10.4.2.7 - St. Lawrence River
10.4.3 - Experimental considerations
10.5.2 - Sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen
10.5.3 - Radiogenic carbon (14C)
11 - Chemical fingerprinting of gasoline and distillate fuels
11.1.1 - Sources of spilled fuels
11.1.2 - Gasoline- and distillate-range petroleums
11.1.3 - Challenges of chemical fingerprinting light(er) oils
11.2 - Chemical fingerprinting of gasoline and distillates
11.2.1 - Gasoline fingerprinting
11.2.1.1 - PIANO analysis
11.2.1.2 - Alkylate fingerprinting
11.2.1.3 - Reformate fingerprinting
11.2.1.4 - Oxygenate additives
11.2.1.5 - Organic lead additives
11.2.2 - Middle distillate fingerprinting
11.2.2.1 - High-resolution GC/FID
11.2.2.2 - Alkylated PAH and related compounds
11.2.2.3 - Alkylated PAH isomers
11.2.2.4 - n-Alkylcyclohexanes
11.2.2.5 - Low-boiling biomarkers
11.2.2.6 - Total sulfur content and aromatic sulfur isomer fingerprinting
11.3 - Sampling and handling considerations
11.3.1 - Liquid petroleum sampling
11.3.3 - Water and air sampling
11.3.3.1 - Water sampling
11.3.3.2 - Air/vapor sampling
11.3.4 - Laboratory-generated samples
11.3.4.1 - Laboratory evaporation
11.3.4.2 - Predicting vapor-phase fingerprints
11.3.4.3 - Water-accommodated fraction fingerprints
11.4 - Weathering of gasoline and distillates
11.4.2 - Water-washing (dissolution)
12 - Forensic fingerprinting of biodiesel and its blends with petroleum oil
12.1 - Introduction to biodiesel and biodiesel/petroleum oil blends
12.1.1 - Feedstocks of biodiesel
12.1.2 - Transesterification of biodiesel
12.1.3 - Chemical composition of biodiesel and biodiesel/petroleum oil blends
12.2 - Introduction of biodiesel analysis techniques
12.2.1 - Spectroscopic techniques
12.2.1.1 - Infrared spectroscopy
12.2.1.2 - NMR spectroscopy
12.2.1.3 - Other spectroscopic technologies
12.2.2 - Chromatographic analysis
12.2.2.1 - Gas chromatography
12.2.2.1.1 - Monitoring the transesterification reaction
12.2.2.1.2 - Determination of fatty acid mono-alkyl esters in blends or pure biodiesel
12.2.2.1.3 - Determination of other minor polar components
12.2.2.1.4 - High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
12.2.2.2 - Thin-layer chromatography
12.2.2.3 - Other chromatography technologies and other technologies
12.3 - Fingerprint analysis of biodiesel and its blends with petroleum oil
12.3.1 - Sample preparation
12.3.1.1 - Sample cleanup/fractionation for biodiesel
12.3.1.2 - Sample cleanup/fractionation of biodiesel/petroleum oil blends
12.3.2 - Identification and quantitation of target analytes
12.3.3 - Oil type screening by GC/MS full scan
12.3.4 - Typical FAME distribution in representative biodiesel products
12.3.5 - Typical polar compound distribution in representative biodiesel products
12.3.6 - Diagnostic ratios for source identification of biodiesel
12.3.6.1 - Diagnostic ratios of different types of FAMEs
12.3.6.2 - Diagnostic ratios of different types of free sterols
12.4 - Case study of forensic identification of biodiesel and its blends
12.4.1 - Source identification of two real biodiesel samples
12.4.2 - Source identification of biodiesel/petroleum oil blends
12.4.2.1 - Fast screening
12.4.2.2 - Identification and quantification of individual component by GC/MS
12.4.2.2.1 - Petroleum hydrocarbons
12.4.2.2.2 - Fatty acid alkyl esters
12.4.2.2.3 - Polar compounds
12.4.2.3 - HPLC identification of the five real samples
12.4.2.4 - Concluding remarks
12.5 - Weathering of biodiesel and its blends with petroleum oil
12.5.2 - Photodegradation
12.5.3 - Dissolution and evaporation
12.5.4 - Weathering conclusions
13 - Chemical character of marine heavy fuel oils and lubricants
13.2.1 - Historical perspective – heavy fuel oils
13.2.2 - Production of heavy fuel oils
13.2.3 - Marine fuel nomenclature and classification
13.2.4 - Forensic chemistry considerations
13.2.4.1 - General chemical fingerprinting
13.2.4.2 - Samples and analytical methods
13.2.5 - General features of modern residual marine fuel oils
13.2.6 - Molecular variability among modern residual fuel oils
13.2.6.1 - Petroleum biomarkers
13.2.6.2 - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
13.2.7 - Distinguishing heavy fuel oils from crude oil
13.3.1 - Production of lubricants
13.3.2 - Chemical fingerprinting of lubricants
14 - CEN methodology for oil spill identification
14.3 - Objective and scope of the CEN methodology
14.4 - Strategy for identifying the source of an oil spill
14.5 - Visual characterization and preparation/cleanup of oil samples
14.6 - Decision chart for identifying the source of spilled oil
14.7 - Level 1 – GC/FID screening
14.7.1 - GC/FID – level 1.1: visual inspection and elimination
14.7.2 - GC/FID – level 1.2: evaluation of weathering
14.7.3 - GC/FID – Level 1.2: diagnostic ratios
14.8 - Level 2 – GC/MS fingerprinting
14.8.1 - GC/MS – level 2.1: visual inspection and elimination
14.8.2 - GC/MS – level 2.2: peak measurements
14.8.2.1 - Diagnostic ratios derived from alkylated polycyclic aromatic compounds
14.8.2.2 - Diagnostic ratios derived from petroleum biomarkers
14.8.2.3 - Normative ratios (NR)
14.8.3 - GC/MS – level 2.2: treatment of results
14.8.3.1 - Comparison of oil samples using MS–PW plots
14.8.3.2 - Comparison of oil samples using diagnostic ratios
14.8.3.3 - Criteria for selecting, eliminating, and evaluating diagnostic ratios
14.8.3.4 - Repeatability limit and critical difference
14.8.3.5 - Elimination of diagnostic ratios using signal-to-noise (S/N) test
14.8.3.6 - Elimination of diagnostic ratios using duplicate analyses
14.9 - Final evaluation and conclusions
14.10 - The CEN methodology in practice: A case study
14.10.2 - Sample preparation
14.10.3 - Level 1 – GC/FID screening
14.10.4 - Level 2 – GC/MS fingerprinting
14.10.4.1 - Level 2.1 – visual inspection and elimination
14.10.4.2 - Level 2.2 – MS–PW plots and diagnostic ratios
14.10.5 - The CEN methodology in practice: conclusions
15 - Development and application of online computerized oil spill identification – COSIWeb
15.3.4 - All information at once
15.3.6 - Quality assurance and quality control
15.5.1 - Special role of the triaromatic steranes
15.6 - Administration of COSIWeb
16 - A multivariate approach to oil hydrocarbon fingerprinting and spill source identification
16.1.1 - Multivariate methods and oil fingerprinting
16.1.2 - Integrated multivariate oil fingerprinting
16.2 - Sample preparation and chemical analysis
16.2.1 - Sample preparation
16.2.2 - Analytical methods
16.2.3 - Fluorescence spectroscopy
16.2.5 - Quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC)
16.3 - Data preprocessing
16.3.1 - GC–MS/SIM chromatograms
16.3.1.1 - Baseline removal
16.3.1.2 - Retention time alignment
16.3.2 - Diagnostic ratios
16.3.3 - Preprocessing of fluorescence spectra
16.4 - Multivariate statistical data analysis
16.4.1 - Multilinear models
16.4.1.2 - Higher-order arrays
16.4.2 - Variable selection and scaling
16.5.1 - Visual inspection of score and loading plots
16.5.2 - Numerical comparisons and statistical tests
16.6 - Conclusions and perspectives
17 - Advantages of quantitative chemical fingerprinting in oil spill identification and allocation of mixed hydrocarbon ...
17.2 - Qualitative fingerprinting methods
17.2.1 - Shortcomings of qualitative fingerprinting
17.2.1.1 - Weathered oils
17.2.1.2 - Genetically similar oils
17.2.1.3 - Qualitatively similar oils
17.3 - Quantitative fingerprinting methods
17.3.1 - Semi-quantitative versus fully quantitative methods
17.3.2 - Data generation for fully quantitative fingerprinting
17.3.2.1 - Sample collection
17.3.2.2 - Sample preparation
17.3.2.3 - GC/FID analysis
17.3.2.4 - GC/MS analysis
17.3.3 - Selection of diagnostic indices
17.3.4 - Source identification protocols for quantitative fingerprinting data
17.4 - Unraveling mixed-source oils using quantitative fingerprinting data
17.4.1 - Two-component mixing models
17.4.2 - Case study 1: bilge oil and heavy oil mixing
17.4.2.1 - Bilge oil and heavy oil mixing model
17.4.3 - Case study 2: heavy fuel oil mixing
17.4.3.1 - Heavy fuel oil mixing model
17.4.4 - Case study 3: diluted bitumen oil impacted sediment
17.4.4.1 - Diluted bitumen oil-impacted sediment mixing model
17.4.5 - Case study 4: nature of PAH in urban sediments
17.4.5.1 - Petrogenic versus pyrogenic PAH: application of the alkylated PAH mixing model
18 - Statistical analysis of oil spill chemical composition data
18.2 - Different chemical compounds for different investigations
18.4 - Univariate and bivariate approaches
18.4.1 - Pattern matching: visual rather than statistical
18.5 - Multivariate approaches
18.5.1 - Principal components analysis (PCA)
18.5.2 - Partial least squares (PLS) analysis
18.5.3 - Polytopic vector analysis (PVA)
19 - Biodegradation of oil hydrocarbons and its implications for source identification
19.2 - Biochemistry of petroleum biodegradation
19.2.1 - Aerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbons
19.2.2 - Anaerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbons
19.3 - Subsurface biodegradation of petroleum
19.4 - Factors limiting biodegradation
19.5 - Microbial ecology of petroleum biodegradation
19.5.1 - The succession of microbial communities
19.5.2 - Deep subsurface ecology
19.5.2.1 - Aerobic respiration
19.5.2.2 - Anaerobic respiration
19.6 - Conclusions: implications of biodegradation on identification
20 - Photochemical effects on oil spill fingerprinting
20.2 - Photochemical processes in the marine environment
20.2.1 - Direct photolysis
20.2.2 - Indirect photolysis
20.3 - Laboratory and field simulation tests
20.4 - Photo-oxidation of oil hydrocarbons at sea
20.4.1 - Overall compositional changes
20.4.2 - Specific compounds
20.4.2.1 - Aliphatic hydrocarbons
20.4.2.2 - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
20.4.2.3 - Polycyclic aromatic sulfur heterocycles
20.4.2.4 - Interaction between photo-oxidation and biodegradation
20.5 - Effects of photo-oxidation on oil spill fingerprinting
20.5.1 - Photodegradation trends of aromatic compounds relevant for oil fingerprinting
20.5.1.1 - Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
20.5.1.2 - Triaromatic sterane biomarkers
20.5.2 - Effect of photo-oxidation on the diagnostic ratios
21 - Oil spill remote sensing: a forensics approach
21.2 - Visible indications of oil
21.3.4 - Night-vision cameras
21.4 - Laser fluorosensors
21.6 - Determination of slick thickness
21.6.1 - Passive microwave
21.6.2 - Acoustic travel time
21.6.5 - Sorbents or oil recovery
21.7 - Satellite remote sensing
22 - Water column sampling for forensics
22.2 - Why is sampling oiled water uniquely so difficult?
22.3 - Analytes of interest
22.4 - Phase-partitioned components
22.5 - Sampling depths of interest
22.5.1 Surface sheens and slicks
22.5.2.1 Near-surface water samples
22.5.2.2 Deeper water samples
22.5.3.1 Entry through slicks
22.5.3.2 Shipboard contamination issues
22.6 Inherent sampling inaccuracies
22.7 - Field quality control samples
22.8 - Laboratory analysis
22.9 - Forensic classification of water samples
22.10 Assessing oil phase patterns
23 - Forensic trajectory modeling of marine oil spills
23.2 - Forecasting and hindcasting oil spill movement
23.3 - Oil spill transport
23.3.3 - Turbulent diffusion
23.4 - Evolution of an oil spill
23.5 - Oil observations and the trajectory hindcast
23.6 - Conclusions and challenges
24 - Identification of hydrocarbons in biological samples for source determination
24.2 - Determination of the route of hydrocarbon accumulation by biota
24.3 - Biochemical indicators of PAH exposure in biota
24.3.1 - Catabolic degradation of PAH involving cytochrome P450 1A
24.3.2 - Other biochemical indicators of oil exposure in biota
24.3.3 - Effects of catabolism on PAH accumulation, persistence, and depuration
24.4 - Modes of toxic action of accumulated hydrocarbons
24.5 - Case study: The Exxon Valdez oil spill
Standard Handbook Oil Spill Environmental Forensics
：Fingerprinting and Source Identification
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