TABLE OF CONTENTS

FORUM: CONFLICTS IN THE SOUTH CHINA SEA

ZOU KEYUAN: China and the South China Sea Conundrum: Any Prospective Solution in Future?

I. Introduction

II. China’s U-shaped Line and Historic Rights

III. Islands and Reefs in the South China Sea

IV. Straight Baselines in the South China Sea

V. Foreign Military Activities in the EEZ

VI. From DOC to COC

VII. Final Remarks

TED L. MCDORMAN: The South China Sea: The U-Shaped Line, Islands and the Philippine-China Arbitration

I. Introduction

A. The 2002 Declaration: Subsequent Developments

B. Legal Questions

II. The U-shaped Line

III. Islands, Rocks and Low-tide Elevations

IV. Dispute Settlement under UNCLOS

A. The China/Philippines Arbitration: Establishing the Tribunal

B. The China/Philippines Arbitration: Non-Appearance

C. The Philippine Claim

D. Jurisdiction

1. Exhaustion of Negotiations

2. Prior Agreed Dispute Settlement Process

3. Land Sovereignty

4. China’s Article 298 UNCLOS Declaration

5. The U-Shaped Line and UNCLOS

V. Conclusion

FOCUS: INTERNATIONAL ENERGY LAW

SERGEI VINOGRADOV AND GOKCE METE: Cross-Border Oil and Gas Pipelines in International Law

I. Introduction

II. International Legal Frameworks for Cross-Border Pipelines: An Overview

A. Special International Agreements on Pipelines

B. Regional Framework Arrangements

C. Multilateral Agreements

III. General Legal Principles Applicable to Cross-Border Pipelines

A. The Freedom to Lay Submarine Pipelines

1. The Geneva Conventions on the Law of the Sea

2. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

B. The Freedom of Transit

1. Emergence of the Concept

2. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

3. The Convention on Transit Trade of Land-Locked States

4. The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea

IV. The Energy Charter Treaty and the Draft Transit Protocol

V. Applicable EU Law

A. The Third Energy Package

B. The Treaty Establishing the Energy Community

VI. Environmental Aspects of Cross-Border Pipelines

VII. Issues of Human Rights

VIII. Models of Cross-Border Pipeline Regimes

A. Connected National Pipelines Model

B. Integrated Pipelines Model

C. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline

D. The Caspian Pipeline Consortium

E. The Chad-Cameroon Pipeline

F. The South Stream Pipeline

G. The Nord Stream Pipeline

IX. Conclusion

TARA DAVENPORT: The Installation of Submarine Power Cables under UNCLOS: Legal and Policy Issues

I. Introduction

II. An Overview of Submarine Power Cables

A. Development and Uses of Submarine Power Cables

1. Early Uses: Short-Haul Crossings

2. 1950s: Supply to Offshore Islands

3. 1960s Onwards: Connection of Autonomous Grids

4. 1990s Onwards: Offshore Energy

B. Types and Design of Submarine Power Cables

1. Types of Submarine Power Cables

2. Design

C. Installation of Submarine Power Cables

III. An Overview of the Legal Regime Governing Submarine Power Cables

IV. Submarine Power Cables not Under the Jurisdiction of the Coastal State

A. The Law

1. Freedom to Lay Submarine Cables in the EEZ and Continental Shelf under UNCLOS

2. Coastal States’ Rights to Regulate Cable Operations in the EEZ and Continental Shelf under UNCLOS

B. Submarine Power Cables and the Marine Environment

1. The Potential Impact of Submarine Power Cables on the Marine Environment

2. Coastal States’ Rights to Impose Environmental Regulations on Submarine Power Cables under UNCLOS

3. Marine Protected Areas and Marine Spatial Planning

4. Environmental Impact Assessments

5. OSPAR BEP Guidelines

V. Submarine Power Cables in the EEZ and Continental Shelf under the Jurisdiction of the Coastal State

A. Environmental Issues

B. Competing Uses

VI. Conclusion: The Way Forward

KAJ HOBÉR AND JOEL DAHLQUIST: International Investment Protection Regimes in the Energy Sector

I. Introduction

II. Other Relevant Regimes

A. Bilateral Investment Treaties

B. North American Free Trade Agreement

C. Treaty Establishing the Energy Community

D. Energy Investments and the European Convention on Human Rights

III. Investment Protection under the Energy Charter Treaty

A. Scope of the Energy Charter Treaty

1. The Meaning of “Investor” under the Energy Charter Treaty

2. “Denial of Benefits” Clause: Article 17

3. The Meaning of “Investment” under the Energy Charter Treaty

4. “Investment” under the Energy Charter Treaty Jurisprudence

5. Temporal Jurisdiction

6. “Investment” in the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) Jurisprudence

B. Expropriation under the Energy Charter Treaty

1. Expropriation in the ECT Jurisprudence

C. Standards of Protection under the Energy Charter Treaty

1. Fair and Equitable Treatment

2. Most Constant Protection and Security

3. Discrimination

4. The ‘Umbrella Clause’: Article 10

D. Most Favoured Nation Treatment: Article 10 (1)

IV. Dispute Settlement under the Energy Charter Treaty

A. State-to-State: Article 27

B. Investor-State: Article 26

1. Forum

2. Applicable Law

3. Consent: Article 26 (3)

V. Provisional Application: Article 45

A. The Relationship between International Law and Municipal Law

B. The Relationship between Articles 45 (1) and 45 (2)

VI. Concluding Remarks

ANDREY KONOPLYANIK: Russia and the Energy Charter: Long, Thorny and Winding Way to Each Other

I. Introduction

II. The Energy Charter

A. History and Interests of Parties

B. Aspects of the Energy Charter

C. ECT and Project Financing: Operation of the Treaty

III. Russia’s Criticism of the ECT: Reasonable and Far-Fetched Claims

IV. ECT: Transit and Draft Transit Protocol

V. Common Misconceptions by Russia

A. Common Misconception 1: Obligation to Provide Transit

B. Common Misconception 2: Obligation for Equal Tariffs

C. Common Misconception 3: Russia-EU Nuclear Trade

D. Common Misconception 4: Supplementary Treaty on Investment

E. Common Misconception 5: ECT Does not Permit Long-Term Contracts

F. The Media as the ‘Collective Disorganiser’

VI. Russia’s Criticism of the ECT: 2009 Timeline and the Resulting Termination of the Provisional Application

VII. General Conclusions

A. Effects of the Termination of the Provisional Application

B. To Destroy or to Upgrade?

C. Conclusion: Energy Charter – A Lost Opportunity?

PATRICK REYNERS: The International Nuclear Energy Law Framework: An Outlook

I. Introduction

II. Nuclear Energy Today

III. A Short History of Nuclear Law

A. The Impact of Chernobyl

B. The Impact of “9–11”

C. The Impact of Fukushima

IV. Competent International Organisations

A. The IAEA

B. Euratom

C. The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency

V. What Is Special About Nuclear Law?

VI. The Legal Framework

A. Radiation Protection

B. Nuclear Safety

1. Information and Assistance

2. Safety of Nuclear Installations

3. Spent Fuel and Radioactive Waste

4. Research Reactors

5. Radioactive Sources

C. Nuclear Transports

1. IAEA Regulations

2. Modal Transport Regulations

D. Nuclear Security

1. International Conventions

2. Non-Binding Instruments

3. Illicit Trafficking

4. International Programmes and Initiatives

E. Non-Proliferation and Safeguards

F. Nuclear Trade Controls

1. The Zangger Trigger List

2. The Nuclear Suppliers Guidelines

G. Nuclear Third Party Liability

1. The Paris Convention

a) Strict Liability

b) Exclusive Liability

c) Scope of Application

d) Nuclear Damage

e) Limitation of Liability in Amount

f) Limitation of Liability in Time

g) Mandatory Financial Cover

h) Jurisdiction

i) Intervention by the State

2. The Brussels Supplementary Convention

3. The Vienna Convention

4. The Joint Protocol

5. Modernisation of the Nuclear Liability Regime

a) Geographical Scope

b) Nuclear Damage

c) Units of Account

d) Financial Limits

e) Time Limits

6. The Convention on Supplementary Compensation Convention for Nuclear Damage

VII. Perspectives

PETER KAYODE ONIEMOLA: International Law on Renewable Energy: The Need For a Worldwide Treaty

I. Introduction

II. International Legal Framework Relevant to the Promotion of Renewable Energy

A. Principles of International Environmental Law

1. The Principle of Sustainable Development

2. The Precautionary Principle

3. The Polluter Pays Principle

B. Non-Binding International Law Instruments: Soft Law

1. The Rio Declaration

2. The Agenda 21

3. The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation

4. The Group of Eight (G8) Gleneagles 2005 Plan of Action

5. The Beijing Declaration and Beyond

C. Binding International Law Instruments: Treaties

1. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 1982

2. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol

3. The Convention on Access to Environmental Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters

4. The World Trade Organization Agreements

a) Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures

b) Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade

c) General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

5. International Investment Treaties

6. Setting the Pace: The Statute of the International Renewable Energy Agency

III. Towards a Worldwide Treaty on Renewable Energy

IV. Conclusion

ALEXANDRA XANTHAKI: Rights of Indigenous Peoples under the Light of Energy Exploitation

I. Introduction

II. Consultation and Participation

III. Free Prior and Informed Consent

A. UNDRIP

B. Human Rights Bodies

C. Development Actors

IV. Substantive Indigenous Rights

A. Land Rights

1. Impact Assessments

2. Redress

3. Benefit Sharing

B. Prohibition of Forcible Removal

C. Rights to Natural Resources

D. Cultural and Social Rights

E. The Right to the Conservation and Protection of the Environment

V. Conflicts of Rights

VI. Conclusions – An Alternative Model?

GENERAL ARTICLES

ULF LINDERFALK: All the Things That You Can Do with Jus Cogens – A Pragmatic Approach to Legal Language

I. Introduction

II. Functionality Analysis

A. Understanding Utterances

B. Studying Contexts as Generalised Phenomena

C. Avoiding Miscommunication

III. Why Utterers Resort to Jus Cogens

A. It Potentially Helps Convince Addressees of the Correctness of Utterers’ Arguments

B. It Potentially Helps Provoke an Understanding of Arguments as Generalised Propositions

C. It Potentially Causes Misunderstandings of the True Nature of Arguments

D. It Potentially Makes Addressees Process Arguments Independently of Any Law-Maker’s Current Understanding

E. It Potentially Helps Contain the Understanding of Other Conceptual Terms

IV. Why Utterers Resort to Jus Cogens: Indirect Functionalities

A. It Potentially Helps Convey Pieces of Legal Knowledge

B. It Potentially Prompts an Assessment of Arguments Based on Means for the Determination of Lex Lata

C. It Potentially Works to Exaggerate the Importance of Arguments and Prevents Addressees from Questioning Utterers’ Intents

V. The Significance of Jus Cogens for the Formation of International Law

VI. Conclusions

MARTIN BOROWSKI: Absolute Rights and Proportionality

I. Introduction

II. Proportionality and Rights

III. The Common Understanding of Absolute Rights

A. The Characteristics of Absolute Rights

B. How to Identify Absolute Rights

1. Absolute Rights qua Being Non-Derogable?

2. Absolute Rights qua Lack of a Limiting Clause?

3. Substantive Characteristics

IV. Problems of the Common Understanding of Absolute Rights

A. The Competition among Absolute Rights

B. The Absolute Priority of Absolute Rights over Competing Relative Rights

C. The Narrow Scope of Absolute Rights Sensu Stricto

V. An Outline of the Relative Reading of ‘Absolute Rights’

VI. Debates that are Result-Oriented versus Structural Enquiries into ‘Absolute Rights’

A. Debates that are Result-Oriented

B. Enquiries into the Structure of ‘Absolute Rights’

VII. The Relative Absoluteness of ‘Absolute Rights’ qua Proportionality

A. The Abstract Weight of Rights

B. The Disproportionately Increasing Resistance of Rights

C. The Certainty of the Relevant Empirical Premisses

1. Shooting Down Passenger Aircrafts, Human Dignity, and the German FCC

2. On the Irrelevance of Hypothetical or Artificial Cases

VIII. On Absolute Limits to Balancing

IX. The Gäfgen Case Revisited

X. Uncoupling Proportionality and Limitation

A. The ‘Relativity’ of Article 3 ECHR in the Case Law of the ECtHR

B. Alexy’s Model of the Structure of Human Dignity – Implicit Proportionality Analysis

XI. Conclusion

JASMINE COPPENS: Interception of Seaborne Migrants: The Applicability of the Non-Refoulement Principle at Sea

I. Introduction

II. Interception and the Right to Leave

III. Interception and Non-Refoulement

A. Refugee Law Context

1. Concept

2. Application at the Borders of a State

a) Maritime Frontier

b) Non-Admittance at the Borders of a State

3. Extraterritorial Application

B. Human Rights Context

1. Concept

2. Extraterritorial Application

3. Effective Control and Legal Fictions

C. Customary International Law

IV. Conclusion

DAGMAR RICHTER AND PATRICK UHRMEISTER: Returning ‘Politically Exposed Persons’ Illicit Assets from Switzerland – International Law in the Force Field of Complexity and Conditionality

I. Introduction

A. The Prominence of Switzerland

B. PEPs – Politically Exposed Persons of the Special Kind

1. Discrepancies in Definition

2. Modes of Kleptocracy, Supposed Figures and the Dimensions of Damage

C. The Case of Switzerland: Proclaimed Policy and Open Questions

II. Returning Assets in International Law

A. International Anti-Corruption Treaty Law

1. The Criminal Law Revolution: A New Transnational Approach to Combating Corruption

2. The Emergence of the Principle of Asset Recovery

a) The UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime

(1) Introduction

(2) Return of the Proceeds of Organized Crime under UNTOC

b) The UN Convention against Corruption

(1) Introduction

(2) Asset Recovery under UNCAC

B. Other Forms of International Co-operation Relevant to Asset Recovery

C. Emergency Measures by the UN Security Council: The Case of Libya (2011)

III. Swiss Law – A Model for State Practice?

A. Three Pillar Approach

B. Preventing the Accumulation of Illicit Assets in Switzerland through Criminal Law

1. Transnational Offences: Active and Passive Corruption with Regard to Foreign Public Officials

2. PEP Regimes as Criminal Organisations?

3. Money Laundering

4. Fundamental Obstacles to Prosecution and Punishment

a) Public International Law Restrictions – Benefiting PEPs?

b) Swiss Jurisdiction and Dual Criminality

c) Disastrous Limitation Clauses: Experiences in the Cases of Duvalier and Mobutu

d) Lack of Evidence

C. The Role of Financial Intermediaries: Due Diligence Requirements in Financial Transactions

1. Know Your Customer – Know Your PEP

2. Duty to Report and Automatic Freeze

D. Freezing, Seizure and Repatriation of Assets

1. Precautionary Seizure of Assets upon Order of the Swiss Federal Council: Recent Cases from Africa

2. International Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters

a) Freezing of Assets and Precautionary Orders

b) Confiscating and Returning Assets

c) Asset Sharing

3. The Restitution of Illicit Assets Act

a) Object and Purpose

b) Freezing – As Being Demanded by the Interests of Switzerland

c) Forfeiture

d) Restitution

E. Compliance with UNTOC and UNCAC?

1. IMAC

2. RIAA

IV. Returning Assets to Developing Countries – The Legal Challenge

A. Subjecting Restitution to Conditions – The Dilemma of Weak Institutions

B. Conditionality in Public International Law

1. Interference with the Domaine Réservé?

2. Element of Coercion?

3. Imposing a Certain Conduct on Developing Countries?

C. Just and Fair Restitution

D. Conclusion: Success Control

GERMAN PRACTICE

CHRISTOPHE EICK: The German-Gabonese Initiative on Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trafficking: Is There a Role for the UN Security Council?

BERENIKE SCHRIEWER: Shining a Light on the Human Rights Situation in Germany – The Human Rights Council’s Report on Germany in the Second Cycle of the Universal Periodic Review

MARLITT BRANDES: Germany’s Secret Arms Deals: Compliance of German Arms Export Licensing with International Law

NICHOLAS ENGLISH AND TIM RAUSCHNING: The Procurement and Use of Armed UAVs by the German Military in International and German Law

JULE SIEGFRIED AND MARIEKE LÜDECKE: 50th Anniversary of the Élysée Treaty

KATRIN KOHOUTEK: The Swiss-German Treaty on the Effects of the Operation of Zurich Airport on German Territory

JULIA MÜLLER: The Hamburg Piracy Trial – A Contribution to the International Aim of Combating Piracy?

ANDREA MEYER: The 2011 EU Directive on Preventing and Combating Trafficking: Non-Implementation by Germany?

BOOK REVIEWS

Bardo Fassbender/Anne Peters (eds.): The Oxford Handbook of the History of International Law (KARL-HEINZ ZIEGLER)

Maurizio Ragazzi: Responsibility of International Organizations. Essays in Memory of Sir Ian Brownlie (BARTŁOMIEJ KRZAN)

Duncan B. Hollis: The Oxford Guide to Treaties (MARCUS SCHLADEBACH)

Francesco Francioni/James Gordley (eds.): Enforcing International Cultural Heritage Law (MALGOSIA FITZMAURICE)

Mohamed Elewa Badar: The Concept of Mens Rea in International Criminal Law – The Case for a Unified Approach (ALEXANDER ORAKHELASHVILI)

Yvonne Dutton: Rules, Politics, and the International Criminal Court – Committing to the Court (SYLVIA NWAMARAIHE)

Anne-Marie de Brouwer/Charlotte Ku/Renée Römkens/Larissa van den Herik (eds.): Sexual Violence as an International Crime: Interdisciplinary Approaches (CECILIA TOLEDO ESCOBAR)

Stefan Talmon: Über Grenzen (NELE MATZ-LÜCK)

Matthias C. Kettemann: Grenzen im Völkerrecht (NELE MATZ-LÜCK)

Martins Paparinskis: The International Minimum Standard and Fair and Equitable Treatment (TIM HILLIER)

Eleanor M. Fox/Michael J. Trebilcock (eds.): The Design of Competition Law Institutions – Global Norms, Local Choices (MARCUS SCHLADEBACH)

Jeffrey L. Dunoff/Mark A. Pollack (eds.): Interdisciplinary Perspectives on International Law and International Relations – The State of the Art (ALEXANDER ORAKHELASHVILI)

Kevin E. Davis/Angelina Fisher/Benedict Kingsbury/Sally Engle Merry (eds.): Governance by Indicators: Global Power through Quantifications and Rankings (HORATIA MUIR WATT)

BOOKS RECEIVED