Chapter
B) Natural Disturbances in Natural Forests
C) Unsatisfactory and Unreliable Natural Regeneration
D) Exclusion of Some Natural Forest Resources
2.2.2. Flexibility to Locate Plantations
2.2.3. High Productivity of Plantations
2.2.4. Rural and Economic Development Tool
2.2.5. Environmental Benefits
2.3. Policy Considerations in Plantation Development
2.3.1. Survey of Plantation Models
2.3.2. Plantation Models Used in Ghana
A) Individual Farm Plantations
B) Community Plantations/Woodlots
C) Agroforestry Strategies
D) Modified Taungya System
E) Private Industrial Plantations
G) Other Potential Models
2.4. Technical and Economic Considerations in Plantation Establishment
2.4.3. Choice of Tree Species
2.4.4. Regeneration Method
2.4.5. Level of Investment
2.4.7. Legal and Institutional Requirements
2.4.8. International Environmental Concerns
2.5. Sustainability and Environmental Concerns in Plantation Forestry Development
2.5.1. Sustainability Considerations
2.5.2. Environmental Considerations
Chapter 3 Challenges of, and Opportunities for, Plantation Development in Ghana
3.2. Constraints of Plantation Development
3.2.1. Economic Constraints
A. Uncertain Economic Profitability
3.2.2. Technical Constraints
A. Limited Technical Information and Dissemination
B. Limited Fire and Pest Management
3.2.3. Institutional Constraints
A) Policy and Regulatory Framework
B) Customary Practices and Tree Tenure
3.2.4. Site and Biophysical Constraints
3.3. Opportunities for Plantation Development
3.3.1. Legal and Policy Framework
3.3.2. Land Availability and a Favourable Climate
3.3.3. Labour Force Availability
3.3.4. Available Market Demand
3.3.5. International Climate Change Initiatives
3.3.6. Environmental Consciousness and Wood Shortages
3.4. Incentives for Plantation Development
3.4.1. Definitions of Incentives
3.4.2. Reasons for Incentives in Plantation Forestry
3.4.3. Types of Incentives
3.3.4. Incentives for Plantation Forestry in Ghana
A) Institutional Incentives
3.4.5. The Problems with Incentives
Part II. Forest Growth Dynamics and Assessments
Chapter 4 Forest Growth Dynamics and Productivity
4.1. Forest Stand Dynamics and Growth
4.1.1. Forest Stand Dynamics
4.1.2. The Concept of Forest Growth
4.1.3. Measuring Forest Growth
4.1.3. Effects of Environmental Factors on Tree Growth
4.1.4. Potential Effects of Climate Change on Forest Growth and Productivity
4.2.1. The Concepts of Site, Site Quality and Site Productivity
4.2.2. Methods of Site Productivity Assessment
4.2.3. Developing Site Index Curves
4.2.4. Choosing a Functional Form to Fit Site Index Curves
4.3. Methods of Improving Site Productivity
4.3.1 Essential Plant Nutrients
4.3.2. Impacts of Successive Harvesting of Plantations on Nutrient Reserves
4.3.3. Planting Mixed Species
4.3.4. Minimum Soil Cultivation
4.3.5. Slash from Harvesting Operations
4.3.7. Manure and Other Organic Materials
4.3.8. Industrial and Urban Residues
Chapter 5 Forest Plantation Measurements
5.2. Importance of Measurements in Forest Resource Management
5.3. Measuring a Single Tree
5.3.5. Tree Form and Taper
5.3.7. Standing Tree Volume
5.3.8. Estimating Log Volume
5.4. Measuring a Stand of Trees
5.4.2. Species Composition
5.4.3. Density and Stocking
5.4.4. Regeneration Surveys
5.4.6. Stand Volume Estimation
5.4.7. Fuelwood Volume Estimation
Estimating Fuelwood Volume of Standing Trees
Estimating Fuelwood Volume of a Stack of Wood
5.5.1. Definition and Data Acquisition
5.5.2. Types of Growth and Yield Models
5.5.4. Volume Table Construction
5.5.5. Model Selection Criteria
Coefficient of Determination
Standard Error of Estimate in Actual Units
Chapter 6 Forest Resources Inventory
6.2. Basic Statistical Concepts
6.2.1. The Concept of Population
6.2.2. The Concepts of Sample and Sampling
6.2.3. Sampling and Surveys
6.2.4. Differences between Sampling and Experimental Designs
6.2.5. Population and Sample Statistics
6.2.6. Bias, Accuracy, and Precision
6.3. Estimating Sample Size
6.4. Sample Plot Selection
6.4.1. Simple Random Sampling
6.4.2. Systematic Sampling
6.4.3. Stratified Random Sampling
6.4.5. Multi-Stage Sampling
6.4.6. Multi-Phase Sampling
6.5.2. Variable Area Plots
6.6. Types of Ground Inventory Surveys
6.6.1. Static or Cross-Sectional Surveys
6.6.2. Recurrent or Continuous Surveys
6.7. Introduction to Remote Sensing
6.8. Main Steps in Conducting Survey Sampling
6.9. Case Study 1: Modelling Growth and Yield of Neem Plantations
6.9.1. Sampling Procedure
Individual Tree Volume Computation
Individual Tree Volume Equations
Allocation of Stands to Site Classes
6.9.3. Yield Table Construction
Diameter and Height Statistics
Relationship between Stem Dry Weight and Fresh Weight
Local and Standard Volume Table Equations
Top Height/Age by Site Class Curves
6.10. Case Study 2: Growth and Yield of Teak Plantations in Ghana
6.10.1. Sampling Procedure
Volume Estimates for Teak Plantations in the Savannah Zone
6.10.3. Yield Table Construction
Part III. Plantation Silviculture and Management
Chapter 7 Critical Silvics of Selected Plantation Species
7.2. Critical Silvics of Teak (Tectona Grandis)
7.2.2. General Description
7.2.3. Natural Distribution
7.2.9. Pests and Diseases
7.3. Critical Silvics of Neem (Azadirachta indica)
7.3.2. General Description
Construction, Shade and Windbreaks
7.3.9. Pests and Diseases
7.3.10. Case Study: Assessing the Potential of Neem Plantations for Use in Agroforestry
7.4. Critical Silvics of Gmelina Arborea
7.4.2. General Description
7.4.9. Pests and Diseases
7.5. Critical Silvics of Cedrela Odorata
7.5.1. Cedrela Odorata in Ghana
7.5.2. General Description
7.5.9. Pests and Diseases
7.6. Critical Silvics of Kapok (Ceiba Pentandra)
7.6.1. Ceiba Pentandra in Ghana
7.6.2. General Description
7.6.9. Pests and Diseases
7.7. Critical Silvics of Wawa (Triplochiton Scleroxylon)
7.7.2. General Description
7.7.9. Pests and Diseases
7.8. Matching Species to Vegetation Zones
Chapter 8 Plantation Establishment and Protection
8.1.1. Methods of Seed Collection
8.1.3. Quantity of Seed Required for Plantations
8.2.1. Pre-Sowing Treatment
8.2.4. Striplings and Stump Stocks
8.2.5. Vegetative Propagation
8.3.1. Mechanical Site Preparation
8.3.2. Chemical Treatment
8.3.3. Prescribed Burning
8.3.4. Examples of Site Preparation in Ghana
8.5. Protecting Planted Trees against Damage
Preventing fire from starting within the plantation
Preventing outside fires from getting into the plantation
Limiting and suppressing fires after they have started
8.5.4. Pests and Diseases
Appendix A. Some plantation species suitable for the high forest zones of Ghana
Appendix B. Some plantation species suitable for the transition zone of Ghana
Appendix C. Some plantation species suitable for the Northern and Coastal savannah zones of Ghana
Chapter 9 Plantation Management Operations
9.1.1. The Concept of Weed Competition in Forestry
9.1.2. Weed Competition in Ghana’s Forested Ecosystems
9.1.3. Methods of Weed Control
9.2.1. Definition and Importance
9.2.2. Methods of Pruning
9.3. Stand Density Management
9.3.1. Objectives of Thinning
9.3.3. Effects of Thinning on Stand Development and Volume Production
9.5.4. Determining Optimal Stand Density
Measures of Stand Density
Stand Density Management Diagrams
9.3.5. Profitability of Thinning Operations
9.3.6. Case Study: Stand Density Management for Teak
Experience from India and Vietnam
Stand Density Management for Teak in Ghana
A Thinning Schedule for Teak in the Savannah Zone of Ghana
Chapter 10 Rural Development and Environmental Plantation Forestry
10.1. Rural Development and Poverty Reduction
10.1.1. Role of Trees in the Rural Economy
10.1.2. Choice of Species
10.2. Wood Energy Production
10.2.1. Role of Trees in Wood Energy Production
10.2.2. Choice of Species
Land Area Requirements for Growing Fuelwood
Integrated Fuelwood and Multipurpose Plantation
10.3. Soil Improvement and Erosion Control
10.3.1. Role of Trees in Soil Improvement and Erosion Control
10.3.2. Choice of Species
10.4.1. Role of Trees in Wind Control
10.4.2. Choice of Species
10.5. Water Conservation and Watershed Protection
10.5.1. Role of Trees in Water Conservation and Watershed Protection
10.5.2. Choice of Species
10.6. Rehabilitation of Degraded Mined Sites
10.6.1. Role of Trees in Land Rehabilitation
10.6.2. Choice of Species
10.7. Trees in Rural and Urban Environments
10.7.1. The Role of Trees in the Rural and Urban Environments
10.7.2. Choice of Species
10.7.4. Methods of Estimating Tree Canopy Cover
Part IV. Forest Plantation Economics and International Climate Change Policy
Chapter 11 Forest Plantation Economics
11.1. Importance of Economic Analyses in Forestry
11.2. Basics of Discounting and Compounding
11.2.1. Interest and Discount Rates
11.2.2. Present and Future Values
11.3. The Concepts of Value and Valuation
11.4. Information Requirements for Economic Analyses
11.5. Economic Valuation of Forest Resources
11.5.1. Market-Based Approaches
B. Indirect Market Prices
Resource Replacement Cost Method (RCM)
11.5.2. Nonmarket-Based Approaches
A. Travel Cost Method (TCM)
B. Random Utility Model (RUM)
C. Hedonic Price Method (HPM)
D. Contingent Valuation Method
E. Productivity or Factor Income Method
11.5.3. Mixed Market and Nonmarket-Based Approaches
A. Benefits Transfer Method
11.6. Measuring Economic Costs
11.6.1. Operations and Maintenance Costs
11.6.2. Costs of Regulations
11.7. Economic Measures of Plantation Profitability
11.7.1. Net Present Value (NPV)
11.7.2. Soil Expectation Value (SEV)
11.7.3. Internal Rate of Return (IRR)
11.7.4. Benefit/Cost Ratio (B/C)
11.7.5. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
11.7.6. Real Options Theory
Theoretical Forestry Investment Real Options Model
11.8. Application of Discounted Cash Flow Methods
11.9. Applying Real Options Theory in Plantation Investments
A. Option to Delay Plantation Development by 10 Years
B. Option to Expand Wood Processing Plant
Computing the Option Values
Chapter 12 The Forest Rotation Decision
12.1. Behaviour of Economic Agents
12.1.1. The Neoclassical Theory of the Firm
12.1.2. Extensions to the Basic Model of the Firm
Nonmarket Goods and Services
12.2. The Concept of a Forest Rotation
12.4. Optimum Rotation Models
12.4.1. Maximum Sustained Yield or Maximum Mean Annual Increment
12.4.2. The Net Present Value (NPV) or Single Rotation (Fisher) Model
12.4.3. Soil Expectation Value (SEV)
12.4.4. Relationship between the Models
Relationship of the MSY Model to the Faustmann Model
Relationship of the Single Rotation Model to the Faustmann Model
12.5. Effect of Changing Prices and Costs on the Optimal Rotation
12.6. Incorporating Non-Timber Values
12.7. Effect of the Risk of a Fire on the Optimal Rotation
12.8. Case Study 1: Optimal Rotation Age Determination for Neem Plantations
12.8.1. Base Case Analysis
12.8.2. Sensitivity Analyses
12.9. Case Study 2: Optimal Rotation Age Determination for Teak Plantations
12.9.2. Sensitivity Analyses
Chapter 13 International Climate Change Policies and Forest Plantations
13.2. The Role of Forests in Climate Change Mitigation
13.3.1. The Kyoto Protocol and the Flexible Mechanisms
13.3.2. The Economic Basis for the Flexible Mechanisms
13.4. Plantation Forestry and Carbon Markets
13.4.1. General Provisions of the CDM
13.4.2. Important Definitions and Concepts Related to the CDM
13.4.3. Rules Governing CDM Forestry Projects
13.4.4. Types of Carbon Credits Awarded for Plantations under the CDM
13.5. The Clean Development Mechanism in Ghana
13.5.1. Structure and Functions of the Designated National Authority (DNA)
13.5.2. The CDM Project Approval Process
13.5.3. Potential Challenges to CDM Implementation
13.6. Carbon Sequestration and Accounting in Plantations
13.6.1. Estimating the Amount of Carbon Dioxide Sequestrated by Forest Plantations
1. Estimate the Total (Green) Biomass Contained in One Ha of the Plantation
2. Determine the Dry Weight of the Biomass
3. Determine the Weight of Carbon
4. Determine the Weight of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sequestered
13.6.2. Analysing Subsidies and Penalties for Carbon Management in Plantations
13.7. Case Study: Optimising Joint Production of Carbon and Timber in Teak Plantations
13.8. Recent International Climate Change Negotiations
13.8.1. Recent Negotiations and Outcomes
Chapter 14 Towards Sustainable Forest Management in Ghana
14.1. Sustainable Forest Management
14.1.1. What Is Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)?
14.1.2. Criteria and Indicators of SFM
14.2 A Results-based Framework Approach to SFM
14.3. Strategic Outcomes and Activities
14.4.1. Measures to Reduce Deforestation
Political Will to Combat Deforestation
Sustainable Energy Policy
Sustainable Agricultural Policies
Take advantage of International Climate Change Frameworks
Ban Surface Mining within All Forests
Promote Community Participation
Enforce Existing Forestry Legislations
Eradicate Corruption from the Forestry Sector
14.4.2. Develop and Implement a National Strategy for SFM
Rational and Integrated Policy Planning and Focus
Develop and Implement Criteria and Indicators (C&I)
Enforce Sustainable Harvesting Standards
Pursue Independent Forest Certification
Implement Natural Resource and Environmental Accounting
14.4.5. Implementing the Strategic Outcome Plans
Chapter 15 Necessary Conditions for Successful Plantation Forestry Development
15.1. Economic and Fiscal Environment
15.2. Policy and Legislative Changes
15.3. Technical Requirements
15.4. Institutional Reform
Authors’ Contact Information
Forest Plantation Development and Management in Ghana
( Environmental Science, Engineering and Technology )
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