Chapter
4. WHAT ARE SHALE AND SHALE GAS?
5. TYPES AND ORIGIN OF SHALE GAS
6. OCCURRENCE AND HISTORY OF SHALE GAS
7. IMPORTANT PARAMETERS IN THE SHALE GAS CONTEXT
7.8 Total Organic Content (TOC)
7.13 Free Gas Quantification
9. SHALE GAS PRODUCTION TREND
10. KEY CHALLENGES IN SHALE GAS PRODUCTION AND EXPLORATION
12. APPLICATIONS OF SHALE GAS
Two - Shale Gas Characteristics
2. CHARACTERIZATION OF GAS SHALE: BACKGROUND
3. CHARACTERIZATION OF GAS SHALE: METHODS
3.1 Well Logging Characterization Methods
4. PETROPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS SHALES
4.2 Rock Type by Gamma Ray Logging
4.3 Volume Estimation by Porosity Logging
4.4 Fluid Type by Resistivity Logging
4.5 Fluid Type by Formation Pressure Data
4.6 Flow Type and Permeability by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
5. COMPOSITION OF SHALE GAS
6. RANGES OF TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, AND DEPTH
7. SHALE GAS VISCOSITY AND DENSITY
8. THERMAL PROPERTIES OF GAS SHALES
8.3 Effects of Composition
8.4 Effects of Temperature
8.7 Effects of Anisotropy
9. PVT BEHAVIOR OF SHALE GAS MIXTURE
10. PETROLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF GAS SHALE
10.1.2 Composition and Color
11. ESTIMATION OF GAS IN PLACE VOLUME
12. GEOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION OF GAS SHALE FORMATIONS
13. POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY: THEORY AND EXPERIMENTAL
14. POROSITY AND PERMEABILITY MEASUREMENTS: PRACTICAL METHODOLOGIES
15. PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN GAS SHALES
16. CHALLENGES IN SHALE GAS CHARACTERIZATION
17.1 Shale Reservoir Characterization
17.2 Hydraulic Fracturing Technology
Three - Exploration and Drilling in Shale Gas and Oil Reserves
2. EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES
3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES
3.1 Exploration and Equipment Stages
3.1.3 Onshore Drilling Rig
4. CHALLENGES AND RISKS IN SHALE GAS AND OIL FORMATIONS
5. TYPICAL EXPLORATION COSTS
8.1 Procedures, Technologies, and Equipment
9. HORIZONTAL, VERTICAL, AND DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
9.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Drilling Techniques
9.3 Drilling Risks and Challenges
9.7 Typical Drilling Costs
10.1 What is Hydraulic Fracturing?
10.4 Fracturing Fluids and Additives
10.7 Fracture Treatment Design and Optimization
10.8 Fracture Modeling and Simulators
10.9 Fracture Characteristics
10.10 Fracturing Rock Properties
10.11 Fracturing Processes
10.12 Risk Evaluation in Fracturing Process
10.13 Challenges and Risks of Fracturing Formations
11.1 Well Design and Construction
11.2 Casing and Perforating Wells
11.3 Well Completion Equipment
11.4 Typical Well Completion Costs in Shale Reservoirs
11.5 Borehole Instability in Shale Formations
11.6 Equations Related to Exploration Drilling
11.7 Normalized Rate of Penetration
11.8 Rate of Penetration—Bourgoyne and Young
11.9 Abandonment and Reclamation of Exploration Wells
11.10 Research and Development of New Exploration and Drilling Techniques
11.10.1 Technological Evolution
11.10.2 Transverse Fractures
Four - Shale Gas Production Technologies
2. PRODUCTION OF SHALE GAS
2.1 Construction of Road and Well Pad
2.3 Casing and Perforating
2.4 Hydraulic Fracturing and Completion
2.5 Production, Abandonment, and Reclamation
4.1 Artificial Well Stimulation
10. TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE
11. MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS FOR TRANSPORT FLOW
13. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
15. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS
15.1 Pricing of Natural Gas
15.2 Breakeven Gas Price for Marcellus
Five - Shale Gas Processing
2. SHALE GAS PROCESSING: BACKGROUND
3. DESCRIPTION OF GAS PROCESSING STAGES
4. HYDRATE FORMATION AND INHIBITION
5. GAS DEHYDRATION PROCESS AND TECHNOLOGIES
5.1 TEG Dehydration System: General Description
5.2 Gas Dehydration: Traditional and New Technologies
5.2.1 Dehydration Process Alternatives
5.2.1.1 Compression and Cooling
5.2.1.2 Cooling Below Initial Dew-Point
5.2.1.3 Absorption of Water With a Liquid Desiccant
5.2.1.4 Adsorption of the Water With a Solid Desiccant
5.2.1.5 Deliquescent Systems
5.2.2 Flow Diagram of Physical Absorption Process: Description
6.2 Gas Sweetening: Traditional and New Technologies
6.2.1 Flow Diagram of Adsorption Processes for Gas Sweetening: Description
6.2.1.1 Presence of Mercury in Feed Gas
6.2.1.2 NGL Extraction and Fractionation
6.2.1.3 Particular Arrangement for Gases with High Nitrogen Content
6.2.1.4 Condensate Stabilization
6.2.1.5 Mercaptan Removal
6.2.1.6 Sulfur Recovery Process
6.2.1.7 Sour Water Stripper Unit
7. PROCESS DESIGN OF GAS PROCESSING PLANTS
8. MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION OF EQUIPMENT OR/AND UNITS IN GAS PROCESSING PLANTS
9. TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN GAS PROCESSING
10. CORROSION IN GAS PROCESSING PLANTS
11. TYPICAL COSTS FOR SHALE GAS PROCESSING
Six - Shale Oil: Fundamentals, Definitions, and Applications
2. TYPES OF CRUDE OIL AND OIL RESERVOIRS
2.1 Category 1: Light, Volatile Oils
2.2 Category 2: Nonsticky Oils
2.3 Category 3: Heavy, Sticky Oils
2.4 Category 4: Nonfluid Oils
5. KEROGEN AND ITS COMPOSITION
6. TYPES AND SOURCE OF SHALE OIL
7. OCCURRENCE AND HISTORY OF SHALE OIL
7.1 Central Queensland Region
7.2 The Green River Formation
8. DEFINITIONS OF MAIN FACTORS AND PARAMETERS IN SHALE OIL FRAMEWORK
8.2 American Petroleum Institute Gravity
8.4 Self-ignition Temperature of Oil Shale
8.5 Porosity (Void Fraction)
10. PRODUCTION HISTORY OF SHALE OIL RESERVOIRS
11. ESTIMATES OF RECOVERABLE SHALE OIL RESOURCES
12. IMPORTANCE OF OIL SHALE
13. SHORT DESCRIPTIONS OF MAIN COMPANIES INVOLVED IN OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
14. ENERGY IMPLICATION OF SHALE OIL
Seven - Properties of Shale Oil
3.1 Central Queensland Region
3.2 The Green River Formation
4. KEROGEN: TYPES, STRUCTURE, AND HISTORY
5. CHARACTERIZATION METHODS FOR SHALE OIL
5.1 X-Ray CT (Computer Tomography)
5.2 High-Resolution Micro-CT
5.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
5.4 Mercury Injection Porosimetry
5.7 Raman Spectroscopic Analysis
5.9 Gas Chromatography Analysis
5.10 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS)
6. EXTRACTION PROCESSES FOR SHALE OIL
6.1.3 Column Chromatographic Separation (Fractionation) and GC–MS
6.1.4 Qualitative Analysis of GC and MS
6.2 Supercritical Extraction
7. CHARACTERISTICS OF SHALE OIL
7.2 Pyrolysis Method for Composition Determination
7.3 Boiling Range of Oil Shale
7.4 Self-Ignition Temperature of Shale Oil
7.5 Diffusivity Parameter in Oil Shale
7.6 Time–Temperature Index (TTI) of Maturity
7.7 Electrical Properties of Oil Shale
7.7.1 Dielectric Constant
8. CHARACTERISTICS OF OIL SHALES
8.1 Porosity of Oil Shales
8.2 Permeability and Fracturability of Shales
8.3 Pore Structure, Pore Size Distribution, and Surface Area in Oil Shales
8.3.1 Pore Structure Measurement Using Adsorption/Desorption Method
8.4 Petrology and Geochemistry of Oil Shale
9. PRESSURE ON CONFIGURATION OF OIL AND GAS MARKETS
Eight - Production Methods in Shale Oil Reservoirs
2. HISTORY OF SHALE OIL PRODUCTION DEVELOPMENT
3. PRODUCTION METHODS FOR OIL RESERVOIRS
4. PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES FOR SHALE OIL RESERVOIRS
4.4.1.2 Underground Mining
4.4.2 Aboveground Retorting
4.4.2.1 In Situ Retorting
5. EFFECT OF ROCK PROPERTIES ON OIL PRODUCTION FROM OIL SHALES
6. SHALE OIL WELLHEAD AND GATHERING
7. LIMITATIONS FOR PRODUCTION FROM OIL SHALE: OPERATIONAL PROBLEMS
8. EXAMPLES OF PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES IMPLICATION IN REAL OIL SHALE CASES
9. GOVERNING EQUATIONS TO MODEL SHALE OIL PRODUCTION METHODS
10. MODELING AND OPTIMIZATION OF PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES IN SHALE OIL RESERVOIRS
11. SCREEN CRITERIA FOR OIL PRODUCTION IN OIL SHALE
12. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF OIL PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY IN SHALE OIL RESERVOIRS
13. TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF OIL PRODUCTION IN SHALE OIL RESERVOIRS
14. TYPICAL COSTS TO CONDUCT OIL PRODUCTION PROCESSES IN OIL SHALE
15. ENVIRONMENTAL/PUBLIC SUPPORT ISSUES WITH SHALE OIL
15.2.1 Water Contamination
16. OPPOSING VIEWS REGARDING SHALE OIL
17. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF OIL SHALE PRODUCTION
18. RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT IN SHALE OIL PRODUCTION
19. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Nine - Shale Oil Processing and Extraction Technologies
2. DESCRIPTION OF OIL SHALE PROCESSING
3. WHAT IS OIL SHALE RETORTING?
4. CHEMISTRY OF OIL SHALE RETORTING
5. CHEMISTRY OF KEROGEN DECOMPOSITION
6. CHEMISTRY OF CARBONATE DECOMPOSITION
7. PYROLYSIS OR RETORTING OF OIL SHALE: EXPERIMENTS, APPARATUS, METHODOLOGY
8. OPTIMAL RETORTING CONDITIONS
9. KINETICS OF PYROLYSIS OR RETORTING OF OIL SHALE
10. ISOTHERMAL AND NONISOTHERMAL KINETICS MEASUREMENT AND EXPRESSIONS FOR SHALE OIL
10.1 Nonisothermal Analysis
11. EX SITU RETORTING TECHNIQUES
11.3 Conduction Through a Wall
11.4 Externally Generated Hot Gas
11.7 Union Oil Retorting Process
11.8 US Bureau of Mines Gas Combustion Retort
11.9 Chevron Retort System
12. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EX SITU PROCESSES
13. IN SITU RETORTING TECHNIQUES
15. EXTERNALLY GENERATED HOT GAS
16. EXXONMOBIL ELECTROFRAC
17.1 Equity Oil Company Process
17.2 Dow Chemical Company's Process
17.3 Talley Energy System's Process
18. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF IN SITU PROCESSES
19. SHALE OIL REFINING AND UPGRADING PROCESSES
19.1 Thermal Cracking Process
19.2 Moving Bed Hydroprocessing Reactor
19.3 Hydrocracking Process
20. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF REFINING AND UPGRADING TECHNIQUES
21. SUPERCRITICAL EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM SHALE
22. SUPERCRITICAL CO2 EXTRACTION OF OIL SHALE: EXPERIMENTS, APPARATUS, AND PROCEDURE
23. SUPERCRITICAL METHANOL/WATER EXTRACTION OF OIL SHALE
24. CONTINUOUS SUPERCRITICAL EXTRACTION
25. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF SUPERCRITICAL EXTRACTION METHODS
26. MATHEMATICAL MODELING OF OIL SHALE PYROLYSIS
27. PARAMETRIC STUDY OF OIL SHALE PYROLYSIS
28. ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN OIL SHALE PROCESSING
29. THEORETICAL, PRACTICAL, AND ECONOMIC CHALLENGES IN OIL SHALE PROCESSING
30. HOT TOPIC RESEARCH STUDIES IN OIL SHALE PROCESSING AND EXTRACTION TECHNOLOGIES
Ten - Shale Oil and Gas: Current Status, Future, and Challenges
2. POLITICAL IMPLICATIONS
3. FEDERAL AND PROVINCIAL (OR STATE) REGULATIONS
4. ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES/ASPECTS
5. GEOMECHANICS CHALLENGES
6. COMPARISON OF CONVENTIONAL AND SHALE OIL AND GAS RESERVES
7. MANAGEMENT RULES IN DEVELOPMENT OF OIL AND GAS SHALE
7.1 Data Management and Compliance
7.3 Water and Emission Intensity Reduction
7.4 Logistics and Operating Models
7.4.1 Make Logistics a Key Part of the Development Strategy
7.4.2 Adopt Leading Logistics Practices and Operating Models
7.4.3 Collaboration Opportunities in New Locations
8. TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC CONSTRAINTS
8.1.2 Underground Injection
8.1.4 Distillation and Crystallization
8.1.6 Brine-Resistant Additives
10. RESEARCH NEEDS IN OIL AND GAS SHALE
11. PAST AND CURRENT STATUS OF OIL AND GAS SHALE
12. FUTURE PROSPECTS OF OIL AND GAS SHALE
13. CURRENT PROJECTS FOR OIL AND GAS SHALE
13.1 Project Name: Ecoshale Utah
13.2 Project Name: Fuling Project
13.3 Project Name: Al Lajjun
Shale Oil and Gas Handbook
：Theory, Technologies, and Challenges
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