Contents

Preface

Contributing authors

Part I: Nanocarbon building blocks

1 A short introduction on carbon nanotubes

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Structural aspects

1.2.1 Chirality

1.2.2 Defects

1.2.3 Doping

1.3 Properties of CNTs

1.3.1 Mechanical properties

1.3.2 Electronic properties

1.3.3 Thermal properties

1.4 Characterization

1.5 Synthesis

1.5.1 Laser ablation

1.5.2 Arc discharge

1.5.3 Molten salt route / electrolytic process

1.5.4 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

1.6 Post-synthesis treatments

1.6.1 Purification

1.6.2 Separation of metallic and semiconducting CNTs

1.6.3 Functionalization

1.6.4 Assembly

1.7 Summary

2 Synthesis, characterisation and properties of graphene

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Properties

2.3 Synthesis

2.3.1 Micromechanical cleavage

2.3.2 Liquid phase exfoliation

2.3.3 Precipitation frommetals/CVD

2.3.4 Epitaxial growth from SiC

2.4 Characterization

3 Functionalization of carbon nanotubes

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Functionalization.Why?

3.3 Types of functionalization

3.3.1 Covalent functionalization

3.3.2 Noncovalent functionalization

3.4 Functionalization with metals

3.5 Summary

4 The importance of defects and dopants within carbon nanomaterials during the fabrication of polymer composites

4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Carbon nanostructures and their properties

4.1.2 Doped carbon nanostructures

4.1.3 Defects in carbon nanostructures

4.1.4 Functionalization of carbon nanostructures for nanocomposites

4.2 Incorporation of nanocarbons into polymer composites and hybrids

4.2.1 Types of polymer composites

4.2.2 Synthesis approaches

4.3 Properties

4.3.1 Mechanical properties

4.3.2 Thermal properties

4.3.3 Electrical properties

4.3.4 Optical properties

4.3.5 Biocompatibility

4.3.6 Biodegradation

4.3.7 Permeability

4.4 Summary

Part II: Synthesis and characterisation of hybrids

5 Synthesis strategies of nanocarbon hybrids

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Ex situ approaches

5.2.1 Covalent interactions

5.2.2 Noncovalent interactions

5.3 In situ approaches

5.3.1 In situ polymerization

5.3.2 Inorganic hybridization from metal salts

5.3.3 Electrochemical processes

5.3.4 Sol–gel processes

5.3.5 Gas phase deposition

5.4 Other nanocarbons

5.5 Comparison of synthesis techniques

5.6 Summary

6 Graphene and its hybrids with inorganic nanoparticles, polymers and other materials

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Synthesis

6.3 Nanocarbon (graphene/C60/SWNT) hybrids

6.4 Graphene-polymer composites

6.5 Functionalization of graphene and related aspects

6.6 Graphene-inorganic nanoparticle hybrids

6.7 Graphene hybrids with SnO2, MoS2 and WS2 as anodes in batteries

6.8 Graphene-MOF hybrids

6.9 Summary

7 Sustainable carbon hybrid materialsmade by hydrothermal carbonization and their use in energy applications

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Hydrothermal synthesis of carbonaceousmaterials

7.2.1 From pure carbohydrates

7.2.2 From complex biomass

7.2.3 Energy applications of hydrothermal carbons and their hybrids

7.3 Summary

8 Nanocarbon-based composites

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Integration routes: From filler to other more complex structures

8.2.1 Filler route

8.2.2 Evaluation of reinforcement

8.2.3 Other properties

8.3 Hierarchical route

8.3.1 Structure and improvement in properties

8.3.2 Other properties

8.4 Fiber route

8.4.1 Different assembly routes

8.4.2 Assembly properties and structure

8.4.3 Assembly composites

8.4.4 Other properties of nanocarbon assemblies

8.5 Summary

9 Carbon-Carbon Composites

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Typology of C3 materials

9.3 Synthesis

9.4 Identification of the structural features of C3 material

9.5 Surface chemistry

9.6 Summary

10 Graphite oxide-MOF hybrid materials

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Building blocks

10.2.1 Graphite oxide

10.2.2 Metal Organic Frameworks:MOF-5, HKUST-1 and MIL-100(Fe)

10.3 Building the hybrid materials: Surface texture and chemistry

10.4 MOF-Graphite oxides composites as adsorbents of toxic gases

10.4.1 Ammonia

10.4.2 Nitrogen dioxide

10.4.3 Hydrogen sulfide

10.5 Beyond the MOF-Graphite oxides composites

10.6 Summary

Part III: Applications of nanocarbon hybrids

11 Batteries/Supercapacitors: Hybrids with CNTs

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Application of hybrids with CNTs for batteries

11.2.1 Lithium ion battery

11.2.2 Lithium sulfur battery

11.2.3 Lithium air battery

11.3 Application of hybrids with CNTs in supercapacitor

11.3.1 CNT-based carbon hybrid for supercapacitors

11.3.2 CNT-based inorganic hybrid for supercapacitors

11.4 Summary

12 Graphene-metal oxide hybrids for lithium ion batteries and electrochemical capacitors

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Graphene for LIBs and ECs

12.3 Graphene-metal oxide hybrids in LIBs and ECs

12.3.1 Typical structural models of graphene-metal oxide hybrids

12.3.2 Anchored model

12.3.3 Encapsulated model

12.3.4 Sandwich-like model

12.3.5 Layeredmodel

12.3.6 Mixed models

12.4 Summary

13 Nanocarbons for field emission devices

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Carbon nanotubes – general considerations

13.2.1 Field emission from nanocarbons

13.2.2 Emission from nanowalls and CNTs walls

13.3 Applications

13.3.1 Field emission electron guns for electronmicroscopes

13.3.2 Displays

13.3.3 Microtriodes and E-beam lithography

13.3.4 Microwave power amplifiers

13.3.5 Ionization gauges

13.3.6 Pulsed X-ray sources and tomography

13.4 Summary

14 Carbon, carbon hybrids and composites for polymer electrolyte fuel cells

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Carbon as electrode and electrocatalyst

14.2.1 Structure and properties

14.2.2 Electrochemical properties

14.2.3 Applications

14.3 Carbon, carbon hybrids and carbon composites in PEFCs

14.3.1 Carbon as structural component in PEFCs

14.3.2 Carbon as PEFC catalyst support

14.3.3 Carbon hybrids and composites as ORR electrocatalysts

14.4 Summary

15 Nanocarbon materials for heterogeneous catalysis

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Relevant properties of nanocarbons

15.2.1 Textural properties and macroscopic shaping

15.2.2 Surface chemistry and functionalization

15.2.3 Confinement effect

15.3 Nanocarbon-based catalysts

15.3.1 Dehydrogenation of Hydrocarbons

15.3.2 Dehydrogenations of alcohols

15.3.3 Other reactions

15.4 Nanocarbon as catalyst support

15.4.1 Catalyst preparation strategies

15.4.2 Applications in heterogeneous catalysis

15.5 Summary

16 Advanced photocatalytic materials by nanocarbon hybrid materials

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 Hybrid vs. composite nanomaterials

16.1.2 Use of nanocarbon hybrid materials in photoreactions

16.2 Nanocarbon characteristics

16.2.1 The role of defects

16.2.2 Modification of nanocarbons

16.2.3 New aspects

16.2.4 Nanocarbon quantum dots

16.3 Mechanisms of nanocarbon promotion in photoactivated processes

16.4 Advantages of nanocarbon-semiconductor hybrid materials

16.5 Nanocarbon-semiconductor hybrid materials for sustainable energy

16.6 Summary

17 Electrochromic and photovoltaic applications of nanocarbon hybrids

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Nanocarbon Hybrids for electrochromicmaterials and devices

17.2.1 Intrinsic electrochromismof nanocarbons

17.2.2 Synthesis and electrochromic properties of nanocarbon–metal oxide hybrids

17.2.3 Electrochromic properties of nanocarbon–polymer hybrids

17.3 Nanocarbon hybrids for photovoltaic applications

17.3.1 Workingmechanisms of PECs and OPVs

17.3.2 Nanocarbon hybrids for PECs

17.3.3 Nanocarbon hybrids for OPVs

17.4 Summary

18 Carbon nanomaterials as integrative components in dye-sensitized solar cells

18.1 Today’s dye-sensitized solar cells. Definition and potential

18.2 Major challenges in improving the performance of DSSCs

18.3 Carbon nanomaterials as integrativematerials in semiconducting electrodes

18.3.1 Interlayers made out of carbon nanomaterials

18.3.2 Implementation of carbon nanomaterials into electrode networks

18.4 Carbon nanomaterials for solid-state electrolytes

18.4.1 Fullerene-based solid-state electrolytes

18.4.2 CNTs-based solid-state electrolytes

18.4.3 Graphene-based solid-state electrolytes

18.5 Versatility of carbon nanomaterials-based hybrids as novel type of dyes

18.5.1 Fullerene-baseddyes

18.5.2 Graphene-based dyes

18.6 Photoelectrodes prepared by nanographene hybrids

18.6.1 Preparation of photoelectrodes by using noncovalently functionalized graphene

18.6.2 Preparation of photoelectrodes by preparing nanographene-based building blocks via electrostatic interactions

18.7 Summary

19 Importance of edge atoms

19.1 Introduction

19.2 External edges

19.3 Internal edges

19.4 Edge reconstruction

19.5 Summary

Index