Contents

Foreword

Preface to the First Edition (Spanish)

Preface to the Second Edition (Spanish)

Acknowledgements

1 Protected Cultivation

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Types of Protection

1.3 Objectives of Protected Cultivation

1.4 History

1.5 Importance

1.6 Plastic Materials

1.7 Summary

2 The External Climate

2.1 Introduction

2.2 The Earth and the Sun

2.2.1 Introduction

2.2.2 The seasons

2.3 Day Length

2.4 Solar Radiation

2.4.1 Introduction

2.4.2 Quality of solar radiation

2.4.3 Quantity of solar radiation

2.4.4 Measurement of solar radiation

2.5 The Earth’s Radiation

2.6 Net Radiation

2.7 Temperature

2.7.1 Air temperature

2.7.2 Soil temperature

2.7.3 The relationship between solar radiation and air temperature

2.8 Wind

2.9 Composition of the Atmosphere

2.9.1 Water vapour content

2.9.2 CO[sub(2)] content

2.9.3 Atmospheric pollution

2.10 Rainfall

2.11 Altitude and Topography

2.12 Summary

3 The Greenhouse Climate

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Greenhouse Effect

3.3 Solar Radiation in Greenhouses

3.3.1 Introduction

3.3.2 Transmissivity to radiation

3.3.3 Orientation and transmissivity

3.3.4 Optimization of the transmissivity

3.4 Temperature

3.4.1 Air temperature

3.4.2 Plant temperature

3.4.3 Soil temperature

3.4.4 Thermal inertia in the greenhouse

3.5 The Wind Inside the Greenhouse

3.6 The Greenhouse Atmosphere

3.6.1 Greenhouse ventilation

3.6.2 Air humidity

3.6.3 CO[sub(2)] content

3.6.4 Pollutant gases

3.7 Summary

4 The Plastic Greenhouse

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Evolution of the Greenhouse Concept

4.3 Geographical Production Areas

4.4 Climatic Suitability for Greenhouse Vegetable Production

4.4.1 Introduction

4.4.2 Climate requirements of vegetables

4.4.3 Obtaining the required climate conditions

4.4.4 Climate suitability

4.5 The Plastics

4.5.1 Introduction

4.5.2 Plastic materials commonly used in agriculture

4.5.3 Plastic additives

4.5.4 Properties of plastic films

4.5.5 Plastic films most commonly used in greenhouses

4.5.6 Rigid plastic materials

4.6 Greenhouse Construction

4.6.1 Introduction

4.6.2 Greenhouse types

4.6.3 Structure materials

4.6.4 Covering materials

4.6.5 Greenhouse screens

4.7 The Selection of the Greenhouse: Options

4.8 Greenhouse Site Selection

4.9 Criteria for the Design and Construction of Greenhouses

4.9.1 Introduction

4.9.2 Criteria for the design of plastic-film greenhouses

4.9.3 Design criteria in areas with a Mediterranean climate

4.9.4 Design criteria in humid tropical climates

4.9.5 Greenhouses for other climate conditions

4.10 Maximizing the Radiation Inside the Greenhouse

4.10.1 Introduction

4.10.2 Factors determining the available solar radiation

4.10.3 Solar radiation inside the greenhouse

4.10.4 Greenhouse orientation

4.11 Normalization of Greenhouse Structures

4.12 Summary

5 Greenhouse Heat Exchanges

5.1 Heat Transfer

5.1.1 Conduction

5.1.2 Convection

5.1.3 Radiation

5.2 Heat Exchanges by Air Renewal in the Greenhouse

5.3 Heat Exchanges in the Greenhouse and Energy Balance

5.4 Simplified Greenhouse Energy Balances

5.5 Summary

6 Crop Physiology: Photosynthesis, Growth, Development and Productivity

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Physiological Functions and Growth

6.3 Photosynthesis

6.3.1 Introduction

6.3.2 The stomata

6.3.3 Internal factors affecting photosynthesis

6.3.4 External factors influencing photosynthesis

6.4 Photomorphogenesis

6.4.1 Introduction

6.4.2 Vegetable pigments

6.4.3 Periodic rhythms in plants

6.4.4 Photoperiodism

6.5 Respiration

6.6 Distribution of Assimilates and Sink–Source Relations

6.6.1 Introduction

6.6.2 Distribution of assimilates between organs

6.6.3 Management of the assimilate distribution

6.7 Growth

6.7.1 Introduction

6.7.2 Influence of the microclimate on growth

6.7.3 Growth analysis

6.8 Development

6.8.1 Introduction

6.8.2 Development stages in greenhouse crops

6.9 Bioproductivity

6.9.1 Bioproductivity and harvest index (HI)

6.9.2 Interception of radiation by the crop

6.9.3 Efficiency in the use of solar radiation

6.9.4 Strategies to maximize the use of radiation

6.10 Production Quality

6.10.1 Introduction

6.10.2 Effects of climate factors on quality

6.10.3 Other factors affecting quality

6.11 Summary

7 Facilities and Active and Passive Climate Control Equipment: Low Temperature Management – Heating

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Reduction of Heat Losses

7.2.1 Reduction of the exchange surfaces

7.2.2 Reduction of heat losses per unit surface

7.2.3 Total heat losses

7.3 Insulation Devices

7.3.1 Inflated double cover

7.3.2 Mobile thermal screens

7.3.3 External double sidewalls

7.3.4 Windbreaks

7.3.5 Other insulation devices

7.4 Heating

7.4.1 Convective heating

7.4.2 Radiative-convective heating

7.4.3 Soil or substrate heating

7.4.4 Heat production

7.4.5 Sizing of the heating systems

7.4.6 Heating and temperature management

7.5 Summary

8 Management of High Temperatures: Cooling

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Function of Ventilation

8.3 How Airtight is the Greenhouse?

8.4 Natural Ventilation

8.4.1 The thermal effect

8.4.2 The wind effect

8.4.3 Characteristics of the openings

8.4.4 The crop and air movements

8.4.5 Measuring the ventilation of greenhouses

8.4.6 Anti-insect screens

8.4.7 Screenhouses

8.5 Mechanical or Forced Ventilation

8.6 Cooling by Water Evaporation

8.6.1 Pad and fan

8.6.2 Fogging and misting

8.6.3 Cooling by evapotranspiration

8.7 Shading

8.8 Other Cooling Methods

8.9 Ventilation and Climate Management

8.9.1 Temperature management

8.9.2 Humidity management

8.10 Dehumidification

8.10.1 Associated heating

8.10.2 Dehumidification systems

8.11 Summary

9 Air Movement in the Greenhouse: Carbon Dioxide Enrichment – Light Management

9.1 Air Movement Inside the Greenhouse

9.1.1 Introduction

9.1.2 Air movement: objectives

9.1.3 Plant responses

9.1.4 Air movement regulation

9.2 Carbon Enrichment (CO[sub(2)])

9.2.1 Introduction

9.2.2 Recommended (CO[sub(2)]) concentrations

9.2.3 CO[sub(2)] enrichment techniques

9.2.4 Distribution of CO[sub(2)]

9.2.5 CO[sub(2)] balance

9.2.6 CO[sub(2)] control

9.3 Light

9.3.1 Introduction

9.3.2 Light increase

9.3.3 Artificial light to increase the illumination

9.3.4 Partial light reduction

9.3.5 Control of the duration of day/night

9.4 Summary

10 The Root Medium: Soil and Substrates

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Desirable Characteristics of Horticultural Soils

10.2.1 Physical and hydraulic characteristics

10.2.2 Chemical characteristics

10.2.3 Considerations on the management of greenhouse soils

10.3 Soilless Cultivation

10.3.1 Introduction: systems

10.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of substrate-grown crops

10.3.3 Substrate cultivation systems

10.3.4 Characteristics of the substrates

10.3.5 Types of substrate

10.4 Changes in the Management of the Root Medium

10.5 Summary

11 Irrigation and Fertilization

11.1 The Plants and Water

11.2 Transpiration

11.3 Evapotranspiration

11.4 The Water in the Soil

11.4.1 Introduction

11.4.2 Characterization of the soil water stress

11.4.3 Measurement of the soil water content

11.4.4 Quality of the irrigation water

11.5 The Water in the Plant

11.5.1 Introduction

11.5.2 Characterization of the water in the plant

11.5.3 Water stress

11.5.4 Effects of water stress in the plant

11.5.5 Saline stress

11.6 Greenhouse Irrigation

11.6.1 Introduction

11.6.2 Components of the drip irrigation system

11.6.3 Management of drip irrigation

11.6.4 Water and salts movements with drip irrigation

11.6.5 Greenhouse irrigation scheduling (soil-grown crops)

11.6.6 Irrigation scheduling in soilless crops

11.6.7 Water use efficiency

11.6.8 Quality of the irrigation water

11.7 Fertilization

11.7.1 Introduction

11.7.2 The nutrients cycle (soil cultivation)

11.7.3 Nutrients extractions

11.7.4 Tolerance to salinity

11.7.5 Fertigation

11.7.6 A practical example: a soil-grown tomato crop

11.7.7 Fertigation of soilless crops

11.8 Summary

12 Regulation and Control Systems: Computer Climate Management – Mechanization

12.1 Regulation and Control Systems

12.1.1 Introduction

12.1.2 Input–output systems

12.1.3 Regulation methods

12.1.4 Application to climate management

12.1.5 Types of controllers

12.1.6 Selection of the type of automatic control

12.1.7 Models

12.2 Computer Climate Management

12.2.1 Controls performed by greenhouse management systems

12.2.2 Digital control systems

12.2.3 The climate control computer

12.2.4 Functions of climate control computers

12.2.5 Towards integrated control

12.3 Mechanization

12.3.1 Introduction

12.3.2 Mechanization of operations

12.3.3 Occupancy of the greenhouse

12.4 Summary

13 Plant Protection

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Chemical Control

13.2.1 Main aspects

13.2.2 Treatment equipment

13.3 Biological Control

13.4 Integrated Pest Management

13.5 Climate Control and IPM

13.6 Most Common Greenhouse Diseases

13.7 Most Common Greenhouse Pests

13.8 Prophylaxis

13.9 Other Aspects

13.10 Summary

14 Economic and Environmental Analysis

14.1 Economic Analysis

14.1.1 Introduction

14.1.2 Greenhouse structures and equipment

14.1.3 The Spanish greenhouse horticultural farm

14.1.4 Production costs

14.1.5 Other aspects of interest

14.2 Environmental Analysis

14.2.1 Introduction

14.2.2 Most important residues

14.2.3 Environmental impact assessment

14.3 Summary

15 Postharvest

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Postharvest Respiratory Metabolism

15.3 Ripening

15.4 Ethylene

15.5 Postharvest Handling

15.6 Quality

15.7 Food Safety: Traceability

15.8 Postharvest Pathologies

15.9 Summary

16 Marketing

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Postharvest Alterations: Storage

16.3 Standardization and Classification

16.4 Marketing Channels

16.5 Transport

16.6 Distribution

16.7 Quality

16.8 Quality Management

16.9 Future Prospects

16.10 Summary

17 Greenhouse Production Strategies

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Crop Productivity and Production Costs

17.3 Destination of the Produce

17.4 Greenhouse Production Options

17.5 Production Strategies and Tactics in Mediterranean Climates

17.5.1 General aspects

17.5.2 Biological aspects

17.5.3 Strategies and tactical management

17.5.4 Future perspectives

17.6 Summary

Appendix 1

A.1 Chapter 2

A.1.1 Calculation of the zenith angle

A.1.2 Calculation of global radiation as a function of insolation

A.1.3 Day length

A.1.4 Wien’s law

A.1.5 Wavelength and frequency

A.1.6 Hellman’s equation

A.1.7 Saturation vapour pressure

A.2 Chapter 3

A.2.1 Thermal integral

A.3 Chapter 4

A.3.1 Diffuse solar radiation inside a greenhouse

A.4 Chapter 5

A.4.1 Conduction

A.4.2 Convection without phase change

A.4.3 Evaporation and condensation

A.4.4 Radiation

A.4.5 Air renewal

A.4.6 Energy balance

A.4.7 Specific heat of a body

A.4.8 Latent heat of vaporization

A.4.9 Global heat transfer coefficient

A.5 Chapter 6

A.5.1 Interception of the radiation by the canopy: extinction coefficient

A.5.2 Radiation absorbed by the crop

A.5.3 Growth parameters

A.5.4 Fruit harvest and biomass indexes

A.5.5 Use of radiation in a typical greenhouse ecosystem

A.6 Chapter 8

A.6.1 Wind effect in natural ventilation

A.6.2 Thermal effect in natural ventilation

A.6.3 Wind loads

A.6.4 Air flow reduction when a screen is placed on a greenhouse vent

A.7 Chapter 9

A.7.1 CO[sub(2)] units

A.8 Chapter 11

A.8.1 Crop water stress index

A.8.2 Irrigation water quality

A.8.3 Estimation of the evapotranspiration (ET[sub(0)]) in a greenhouse

A.9 Chapter 12

A.9.1 Transmissivity models

Appendix 2 Symbols and Abbreviated Forms

Appendix 3 Units and Equivalences

Length

Area

Volume

Mass

Thickness of Plastic Films

Temperature

Pressure

Energy and Power

Radiation

Water Lamina

Prefixes

List of Tables

List of Figures

List of Photos

List of Plates

References

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

Y

Z