Chapter
The Utilization of Slag in Civil Infrastructure Construction
Notations and abbreviated formulae
SI* (modern metric) conversion factors
Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering
1.1 Introduction to slag utilization in civil infrastructure construction
1.2 Sustainability in construction, mining, and mineral production
2: Ferrous metal production and ferrous slags
2.2 Ironmaking process and BF slag formation
2.2.1 Overview of ironmaking
2.3 Basic properties of BF slag
2.3.1 Chemical and mineral compositions
2.3.1.1 Chemical composition
2.3.1.2 Mineral composition
2.3.1.3 Dicalcium silicate
2.3.2 Basic physical properties
2.4 Steelmaking processes and steel slag formation
2.4.1 BOF steelmaking and slag formation
2.4.2 EAF steelmaking and slag formation
2.4.3 Ladle furnace refining and ladle slag
2.5 Basic properties of steel slag
2.5.1 Chemical and mineral compositions
2.5.1.1 Chemical composition
2.5.1.2 Mineral composition of steel slag
2.5.1.3 Free lime and existing form
2.5.1.4 MgO and its crystalline form
2.5.2 Basic physical properties
3: Nonferrous metal extraction and nonferrous slags
3.2 Copper extraction and copper slag
3.2.1 Copper extraction process and copper slag formation
3.2.2 Basic properties of copper slag
3.3 Nickel extraction and nickel slag
3.3.1 Nickel extraction process and nickel slag formation
3.3.2 Basic properties of nickel slag
3.4 Lead extraction and lead slag
3.4.1 Lead extraction process and slag formation
3.4.2 Basic properties of lead and lead–zinc slag
3.5 Zinc extraction and zinc slag
3.5.1 Zinc extraction process and zinc slag formation
3.5.2 Basic properties of zinc slag
3.6 Tin extraction and tin slag
3.6.1 Tin extraction process and tin slag formation
3.6.2 Basic properties of tin slag
4: Nonmetallurgical slags
4.2.1 Phosphorus production and phosphorus slag formation
4.2.2 Basic properties of phosphorus slag
4.3.1 Coal combustion and boiler slag formation
4.3.2 Basic properties of boiler slag
4.4.1 MSW incineration and incinerator slag formation
4.4.2 Basic properties of incinerator slag
5.2 Evaluation of slag and slag products
5.2.1 Inherent variation of slag properties and performance requirements
5.2.2 Evaluation methodology
5.2.2.1 Volume expansion test
5.2.2.2 Powdering ratio test
5.2.2.3 Autoclave disruption test
5.2.2.7 Gamma-ray spectroscopy analysis
5.2.2.9 Autoclave treatment
5.2.2.10 Chemical composition analysis
5.3 Blast furnace slag processing
5.4 Steel slag processing
5.4.1.2 Unit weight modification
5.4.1.4 Modify leaching property
5.4.2.1 Crushing and screening
5.4.2.2 Stockpiling and aging
5.4.2.7 Instant slag chilling process
5.4.2.9 Spent acid treatment
5.4.2.10 Property modification
5.4.2.13 Pressure treating
5.4.3 Mechanical handling
6: Philosophy of utilization of slag in civil infrastructure construction
6.2 The methodology of slag research and utilization
6.2.1 The relationships between slag characteristics and end product performance
6.2.2 Quantification of the properties of slag and end products
6.3 Blending use of slag with other by-product or nonconventional materials
6.3.1 The ultimate goal of blending use on nonconventional
6.3.2 Potential recycled materials and by-products that can be co-used with slag
6.3.2.1 Scrap tire rubber
6.3.2.3 Recycled concrete aggregate
7: Environmental aspects of slag utilization
7.2 Regulations and environmental evaluation
7.2.1 The necessity for performance-based regulations and guidance
7.2.1.1 Environmental law enactment in the United States
7.2.1.2 Experience in Europe
7.2.1.3 The necessity for performance-related regulations
7.2.1.4 Life-cycle assessment consideration in slag applications
7.2.2 Environmental evaluation by leaching test
7.2.2.1 Leaching process and mechanism
7.2.2.2 Leaching assessment and test methods
ASTM D3987 standard practice for shake extraction of solid waste with water
ASTM D4874 standard test method for leaching solid waste in a column apparatus
Texas 7-day distilled water leachate test
Field leachate tests with lysimeter
7.3 Special circumstances of slag use
7.3.2.1 Blast furnace slag
Blast furnace slag in water
Gray staining on HMA surface
7.3.4 Nonmelurgical slags
7.3.4.1 Radioactivity of phosphorus slag
7.3.4.2 Municipal incinerator ash and slag
8: Unbound slag aggregate use in construction
8.2 Technical requirements for aggregates and end products
8.2.1 General requirements for aggregates
8.2.1.3 Shape and texture
8.2.2 General requirements for end products
8.2.2.1 Base and subbase of highway pavements
8.2.2.2 Graduation requirements of subbase materials
8.2.2.3 Graduation requirements of base course materials
8.2.2.4 Surface course materials
8.2.3 Measurement of the properties of aggregate
8.2.3.1 California bearing ratio
8.2.3.2 Abrasion resistance
8.2.3.4 Freezing and thawing test
8.2.3.5 Sulfate soundness test
8.2.4 Construction procedures
8.2.4.1 Subgrade preparation
8.2.4.2 Spreading the base materials
8.2.4.3 Compaction of aggregate base
8.2.4.4 Field compaction control
8.2.4.5 Field moisture control
8.2.4.6 Effective compaction control
8.2.4.7 Field density tests
8.3 Use of unbound slag aggregate in construction
8.3.1 Granular base and subbase
8.3.2 Ballast and subballast
8.3.2.1 Properties of slag ballast
8.3.2.2 Installation methods
8.3.4.1 Railway track base
8.3.4.2 Marine use of carbonated steel slag
8.4 Research and development
8.4.1 Criteria establishment
8.4.2 Mixing use with other by-products
8.4.2.1 Mixture of steel slag and dredged clay
9: Usability criteria for slag use as a granular material
9.2 Quantification for use in nonrestrained conditions
9.2.1 Basic properties of steel slag and expansion mechanism
9.2.1.1 Chemical and mineral compositions
9.2.1.2 Expansion mechanism
9.2.2 Theoretical volume expansion
9.2.2.1 Hydration of free lime and volume change
9.2.2.2 Volume expansion due to physical change
9.2.2.3 An equation for prediction of steel slag volume expansion
9.2.3 Laboratory volume expansion testing
9.2.3.1 Test method and equipment employed
9.3 The development of usability criteria for nonrestrained use
9.3.1 Usability criteria for the use of steel slag as granular material
9.3.2 Modification of the criterion
10: Slag use in asphalt paving
10.2 Technical requirements for aggregates in asphalt concrete
10.2.1 Consensus properties and measurement
10.2.1.1 Coarse aggregate angularity
10.2.1.2 Fine aggregate angularity
10.2.1.3 Flat and elongated particles
10.2.2 Source properties and measurement
10.2.2.3 Deleterious materials
10.2.3 Gradation requirements
10.3 General requirements for asphalt pavements and surface treatment techniques
10.3.1 General performance requirements for asphalt pavement structure
10.3.1.1 Resistance to permeant deformation
10.3.1.2 Friction or skid resistance
10.3.1.3 Fatigue resistance
10.3.1.4 Resistance to low-temperature cracking
10.3.1.5 Resistance to moisture induced damage (stripping resistance)
10.3.1.6 Workability (compactibility)
10.3.2 Surface treatment techniques and requirements
10.3.2.5 Open graded friction course
10.3.2.6 Stone mastic (matrix) asphalt
10.3.3 Construction procedures
10.4 Practical use of slag in asphalt paving
10.4.1 Steel slag use in hot-mix asphalt
10.4.1.1 Early development of slag use in asphalt paving
10.4.1.2 Recent development
10.4.1.3 Marshall stability
10.4.1.4 Permanent deformation prevention
10.4.1.6 Free lime and antistripping
10.4.1.7 Optimum slag replacement
10.4.1.9 Life cycle cost analysis
10.4.2 Other ferrous, nonferrous, and nonmetallurgical slag use in hot-mix asphalt
10.4.2.1 Air-cooled blast furnace slag
10.4.2.4 Municipal solid waste incineration slag aggregate
10.4.3 Slag use in surface treatment and other paving applications
10.4.3.1 Stone Mastic Matrix (SMA)
10.4.3.3 Warm-mix asphalt
10.4.3.6 Cold mix-foamed asphalt
10.4.3.7 Cold in-place recycling
10.4.4 Properties and performance of asphalt materials containing slag aggregate
10.4.4.1 Basic Marshall and physical properties
10.4.4.2 Indirect tensile strength
10.4.4.3 Resilient modulus
10.4.4.5 Fatigue behavior
10.4.4.6 Electrical sensitivity
10.4.4.7 High-temperature stability and low-temperature crack resistance
10.4.4.8 Volumetric stability and expansion issues
10.5 Research, development, and trends in slag use in asphalt paving
10.5.1 Slag asphalt absorption
10.5.3 Reclaimed asphalt pavement containing slag aggregate
10.5.4 Life cycle cost analysis and recyclability
10.5.6 Abrasion dust of slag HMA pavement
10.5.7 Thin HMA overlays high friction surface treatment
10.5.8 Blending use of steel slag with recycled concrete aggregate and fly ash
11: Slag use as an aggregate in concrete and cement-based materials
11.2 Mechanical behavior of concrete containing steel slag aggregate
11.2.1 Strength-related properties
11.2.1.2 Strength and elastic modulus
11.2.2 Fracture-related properties
11.2.2.1 Results of brittleness and fracture toughness
11.2.3 Microlevel examination and the mechanism of modified properties
11.2.3.2 Microhardness test
11.3 Development of slag aggregate use in rigid matrixes
11.3.1 Steel slag use in concrete
11.3.1.1 Strength and mechanical properties
11.3.1.5 Blend use with other materials
11.3.1.6 Alkali-aggregate reactivity check
11.3.2 Slag use in other rigid matrices
11.3.2.1 Slag use in brick making
11.3.2.2 Self-packing concrete
11.3.3 Nonferrous slag use in concrete
11.3.3.1 Copper slag use as a fine aggregate
11.3.3.2 The use of lead–zinc slag in concrete
11.3.3.3 Ferrochromium slag
11.3.3.4 Municipal solid waste incinerator slag
11.3.3.5 Use of EAF slag in pervious concrete
12: Usability criteria for slag use in rigid matrices
12.2 Quantification for use in restrained conditions or rigid matrices
12.2.1 The concept of expansion force
12.2.1.1 Bulk expansion force Pe and three-dimensional expansion force per unit volume, σe
12.2.2 Test methods development
12.2.2.1 Expansion force test
12.2.2.2 Disruption ratio test
12.2.3 Quantification of expansion forces
12.2.3.1 Quantification of expansion force of a single steel slag particle
12.2.4 Laboratory experimental study
12.2.4.1 Laboratory testing
12.3 Usability criterion development
12.3.1 Usability criterion deduction
12.3.1.1 Disruption model for steel slag aggregate concrete
12.3.1.2 Usability criterion for steel slag in concrete
12.3.1.3 Determination of expansion force of steel slag
12.3.2 Experimental verification
12.3.2.1 Experimental results
12.3.3 Portable expansion force testing device development
13: Slag use in cement manufacture and cementitious applications
13.2 Raw materials of Portland cement and end product requirements
13.2.1 Mineral sources, material process, and property requirements
13.2.2 Environmental and energy aspects
13.2.2.1 Emissions in cement production
13.2.2.2 Energy use in cement production
13.2.2.4 Water use and discharge in cement production
13.2.2.5 Energy benefits by using slag in cement manufacture
13.3 Cementitious properties of slags and their utilization in cement manufacture
13.3.1 Hydraulic activity of GBFS
13.3.1.1 Hydraulic activity
13.3.1.2 Factors determining cementitious properties
13.3.2 GBFS in cement manufacture
13.3.2.1 Use directly in concrete
13.3.2.2 Slag cement use for special applications
13.3.3 Mineral compositions and hydraulic activity of steel slag
13.3.3.1 Basicity of alkalinity of steel slag
13.3.3.2 Calculation of active mineral in steel slag
13.3.3.3 Existing form of free CaO and its effect on stability
13.3.3.4 Effect of MgO on the stability of SSBC
13.3.4 The use of steel slag in cement manufacture
13.3.4.2 Mixing proportion and strength
13.3.4.3 Laboratory pilot experimental study using BOF slag in blended cement–materials for strength and stability te ...
13.3.4.4 Experimental method and strength results
13.3.4.5 BOF slag used in cement clinker making
13.3.5 Hydraulic activity of nonferrous slags and utilization
13.3.5.1 Hydraulic properties of granulated copper slag
13.3.5.2 Granulated copper slag use in blended cement
13.3.5.3 Use of copper slag in cement clinker production
13.3.5.4 Use of copper slag in blended cement
13.3.5.5 Municipal solid waste incinerator bottom ash slag
13.4 Special considerations for slag use in cement manufacture
13.4.1 Stability and other properties of slag blended cement
13.4.1.2 Characteristics of SSBC
13.4.2 Grindability of slag
13.4.3 Quantification criterion for steel slag use in blended cement manufacture
13.4.3.1 Addition criterion for steel slag in SSBC
13.5 Other cementitious applications of slag
14: Case studies on slag utilization
14.2 Using EAF slag in Egnatia Highway construction
14.2.1 Background information
14.2.1.1 Adaptation to bituminous surfacing
14.2.2 Materials, mix design, and placement
14.2.2.1 Aggregates (coarse, fine, and filler)
14.2.2.2 Bituminous binder
14.2.3 Testing verification
14.2.4 Use of excess EAF filler as mineral filler in SCC
14.3 Using steel slag aggregate for stone column ground
14.3.1 Vibrofloatation ground stabilization
14.3.2 The history of EAF slag use
14.3.3 Contracts and volumes
14.3.3.1 Physical and mechanical properties
14.3.4 Chemical and environmental tests
14.4 Using nickel slag in highway construction
14.4.1 Laboratory evaluation program
14.4.1.2 Physical properties
14.4.1.3 Chemical composition analysis
14.4.1.4 Scanning electron microscope analysis
14.4.1.5 Volumetric expansion testing
14.4.1.7 Petrographic examinations
14.4.1.8 Autoclave disruption testing
14.4.1.10 HMA rut resistance testing
14.4.2 Using nickel slag in highway construction
15: Comprehensive utilization of slag as system engineering: Challenges and opportunities
15.2 Contributing components in the integrated slag utilization system
15.2.1 Policies and regulations
15.2.1.1 European legislation
15.2.1.2 Registration, evaluation and authorization of chemicals
15.2.1.3 The United States
15.2.1.4 National environmental policy act
15.2.1.5 Resource conservation and recovery act
15.2.1.6 Pollution prevention act
15.2.1.7 Toxic substances control act
15.2.1.8 Human Health Risk Assessment
15.2.2 Standards and specifications
15.2.3 Quality control and quality management
15.2.4 Test methods and usability criteria development
15.2.5 Slag classification
15.2.5.2 Classification and regulation
15.2.5.3 Definition of waste and interpretations of the EC Court of Justice
15.2.6 Education and training
15.2.7.2 Projects demonstration
15.2.7.3 Incentives and subsidies
15.2.7.4 Marketing slag product
15.3 Compilation of slag specifications
15.3.1 Standard test methods and specifications for slag and end products containing slag
Appendix 1: Procedures to determine disruption ratio of expansive slag
Appendix 2: Procedures to determine metallic iron content in steel slag
Appendix 3: Procedures to determine free calcium oxide content in steel slag
A3.1 Step 1 Total calcium content (benzoic titration method)
A3.1.1 Preparation of reagents
A3.1.2 Preparation of slag sample
A3.1.3 Titration: benzoic acid standard solution
A3.2 Step 2 Determination of Ca(OH) 2 content in slag
A3.2.1 Equipment and apparatus
A3.2.3 Procedures and calculation
Appendix 4: Procedures to determine free magnesium oxide
A4.1 Determination of Total Magnesium Oxide
A4.2 Determination of Free Magnesium Oxide in Slag
Appendix 5: Nickel slag sampling protocol
The Utilization of Slag in Civil Infrastructure Construction
Disclaimer: Any content in publications that violate the sovereignty, the constitution or regulations of the PRC is not accepted or approved by CNPIEC.
