Chapter
1 Proteins in the Diet: Challenges in Feeding the Global Population
1.2 Proteins and Their Role in Food and Diet
1.2.1 Defining Proteins: Structure Levels and Existing Classification Systems
1.2.1.1 Structural Levels
1.2.1.2 Classification of Proteins
1.2.2 Protein as a Macronutrient in Food
1.2.2.1 Allergenicity and Food Protein
1.2.3 Protein as a Macromolecule in Food Systems
1.2.4 Overview of Plant-Derived Protein and Alternate Protein Sources
1.3 Sustainable Sources of Proteins
1.3.1 Dietary Patterns Around the Globe
1.3.2 Health and Wellness Trends
1.4 Reasons to Consume Plant and Alternate Proteins
1.4.1 Living on the Earth in 2050
1.4.1.1 Population Increases and Their Effects
1.4.2 Natural Resources for Agriculture: Land, Water, Nitrogen
1.4.2.1 Land for Food, Feed, or Fuel?
1.4.2.2 Will Water Become a Commodity?
1.4.2.3 Fossil Energy, Nitrogen, and Proteins
1.4.3 Global Warming and Climate Change
1.5 Meat Consumption: Why We Are on the Current Path
1.6 Role of the Consumer for the Greater Good
I. Plant Derived Proteins
2 Soy Protein: Impacts, Production, and Applications
2.3 Soybean Protein Recovery: Protein Isolation
2.4 Types of Soy Proteins and Protein Products
2.5.1 Two Life Cycle Inventory Models
2.5.2 Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Impact Assessment
2.5.2.2 Water Use Footprint (Blue Water)
2.5.2.3 Land Use Footprint
2.5.3 Other Perspectives on Sustainability of Soy
2.5.3.1 Energy Use at Farm Level
2.5.3.2 Water Use at Farm Level
2.5.3.3 Land Use at Farm Level and Deforestation
2.5.3.4 Use of Hexane in Soy Milling
2.5.3.5 ISP Manufacturing
2.6.3 Weight Management and Satiety
2.6.4 Cardiovascular Health
2.6.5 Nutritional Relevance of Other Seed Constituents
2.6.5.1 Trypsin Inhibitors
2.6.7 A Good Source of Protein Across the Lifespan
2.7 Uses and Functionality
2.8 Application and Current Products
2.9 Potential New Uses, Issues, and Challenges
2.9.1 Generational Flavor Improvements
2.9.2 Genetic Modified and Identity Preserved
3 Rice Protein and Rice Protein Products
3.3 Processing of Rice and Rice Proteins
3.3.1.1 Protein Localization
3.3.2 Production of Rice Protein
3.3.2.1 Rice Bran Protein Products
3.3.2.2 Endosperm Protein
3.4 Functional Properties and Applications
3.5 Allergenicity, Off Tastes, and Antinutritional Factors
3.5.2 Flavor Compounds and Off Tastes
3.5.3 Antinutritional Factors
3.5.3.2 Enzyme Inhibitors
3.6 Potential New Uses and Emerging Health Benefits
3.6.1 Reduction of Cholesterol and Triacylglycerol Levels
3.6.2 Suppression of Hyperglycemia
3.6.3 Antioxidative Activity
3.6.4 Reduction in Hypertension
3.6.5 Ileum-Contracting, Antiopioid, and Phagocytosis-Promoting Activities
4 Proteins From Wheat: Sustainable Production and New Developments in Nutrition-Based and Functional Applications
4.1.1 Agricultural Production
4.1.5 Sustainability of Wheat
4.2.1 Gluten Extraction From Wheat
4.3 Nutrition and Digestibility, Allergen, and Antinutritive Aspects
4.3.1 Amino Acid Composition
4.3.2 Digestibility Data and Mechanism
4.3.3 Allergenicity and Intolerance Mechanism
4.3.4 Antinutritive Factors
4.4 Protein Functionality
4.5 Applications in Food and Feed
4.5.1 Gluten in Bread Application
4.5.3 Breakfast Cereals and Pasta
4.5.4 Protein-Enriched Foods
4.5.5 Uses in Vegetable-Based Meat Alternatives
4.5.6 New Product and Technology for Wheat-Based Meat
5 Proteins From Sorghum and Millets
5.2 Sorghum and Millet Production: Land, Water, and Energy Use
5.2.2 Land-Use Efficiency
5.2.4 Cultivation With Legumes
5.2.5 Sustainable Agriculture
5.3 Protein Nutritive Quality
5.3.4 Other Nutrients, Phytochemicals, and Nutritional Quality Issues
5.4 Protein Types, Composition, and Structure
5.4.2 Protein Isolation and Functionality
5.4.3 Potential Applications for Kafirin
5.5 Sorghum and Millet Processing
5.5.1 Effects of Cooking on the Proteins
5.5.4 Lactic Acid Fermentation
5.5.5 Brewing and Bioethanol Production
5.5.6 Compositing With Legumes
5.6 Developments in Improving Sorghum and Millet Protein Quality
6 Protein From Oat: Structure, Processes, Functionality, and Nutrition
6.2 Oat as a Protein Crop
6.2.4 Health Aspects of Oats
6.3 Localization and Structure of Oat Proteins
6.3.1 Protein in the Oat Grain
6.3.2 Oat Protein Fractions
6.3.2.3 Minor Protein Fractions
6.3.3 Nutritional Properties and Suitability for Celiac Patients
6.4 Manufacture of Oat Protein Isolates and Concentrates
6.5 Functionality and Potential Uses
6.5.1 Functional Characteristics of Oat Protein
6.5.2 Applications of Oat Protein
6.5.2.2 Extruded Products
7 Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.) Proteins: Composition, Structure, Enzymatic Modification, and Functional or Bioactive Prop...
7.1.1 Growing Regions and Yield
7.1.4 Energy Use and Cost
7.1.6 Seed Composition and Protein Quality
7.2.3 Sulfur-Rich Proteins
7.3 Functional Properties of Hemp Seed Protein Products
7.3.2 Protein Concentrates
7.4 Bioactive Properties of Hemp Seed Proteins and Peptides
7.4.1 Renal Disease Modulation
8 Protein From Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum L.)
8.1.2 Chemical Composition
8.2 Sustainability of Flax: Land, Water, and Energy Use
8.3 Processing of Proteins and Types of Products From Flaxseed
8.4 Nutritive Value of Flaxseed Proteins
8.4.1 Amino Acids and Proteins
8.4.2 Allergenicity of Flaxseed Proteins
8.5 Uses and Functionality of Flaxseed Protein
8.6 Application and Current Products
8.7 Potential New Uses, Issues, and Challenges
9 Pea: A Sustainable Vegetable Protein Crop
9.2 Sustainability, Energy, and Water Use
9.4 Nutritive Value of Peas
9.4.2 Minerals and Vitamins
9.4.3 Antinutritive Factors
9.5 Uses and Functionality
9.6 Applications and Current Products
9.6.4 Meat and Meat Analogs
9.7 Health Benefits of Peas
10 Lupin: An Important Protein and Nutrient Source
10.1.1 Cultivation of Lupinus Species
10.3 Food (Protein) Dependence of the EU
10.5.4 Minerals and Vitamins
10.5.5 Evaluation of the Protein Quality and Digestibility of Lupin
10.6 Antinutritive Factors and Allergenicity
10.6.1 Antinutritive Factors
10.6.1.1 Phytates and Lectins
10.6.1.3 Raffinose Family Oligosaccharides
10.7 Uses and Functionality
10.7.2 Lupin Protein Concentrate
10.7.3 Lupin Protein Isolate
10.8 Application/Current Products
10.8.1 Bakery Applications
10.8.2 Egg Replacement in Baked Goods
10.8.3 Application of Lupin Protein Concentrate in Batters
10.9 Current Food Products
10.9.1 Nutritional Applications
10.10 Health Aspects of Lupin
10.10.3 Satiety and Glucose Blood Level
10.10.5 Other Health Effects
11 Lentil: Revival of Poor Man’s Meat
11.2.4 Diseases Affecting Lentil Plant
11.3 Lentil Proteins: Characterization and Processing Into Concentrates and Isolates
11.3.2 Processing Into Protein Concentrates or Isolates
11.4 Nutritional Value, Antinutrients, and Allergenicity
11.4.4 Antinutritional Factors and Protein Digestibility
11.5 Applications and Current Products
11.6 Protein Functionality
11.7.1 Bioactive Peptides
11.8 Off-Flavors Associated With Lentil Flour and Lentil Protein Ingredients
12 Underutilized Protein Resources From African Legumes
12.2.1 Introduction (Land, Water, Sustainability)
12.2.2 Composition of Marama Beans
12.2.3 Composition of Marama Proteins
12.2.5 Nutritive Value, Allergenicity, and Antinutritive Factors
12.2.6 Current and Future Uses and Applications
12.2.7 Off-Tastes Associated With Marama Beans
12.2.8 Issues and Challenges
12.3.1 Introduction (Land, Water, Sustainability)
12.3.2 Composition of Bambara Groundnut
12.3.3 Composition of Bambara Proteins
12.3.5 Nutritive Value, Allergenicity, and Antinutritive Factors
12.3.6 Current and Future Uses and Applications
12.3.7 Off-Tastes Associated With Bambara Groundnut
12.3.8 Issues and Challenges
13 Peanut Products as a Protein Source: Production, Nutrition, and Environmental Impact
13.2 Environmental Impact and Sustainability
13.2.1 Climate Change Impacts
13.3 Peanut Cultivation and Production
13.3.1 Production Regions
13.3.2 Cultivation Techniques
13.4.4 Product Processing
13.5 Uses, Functionality, and Current Products
13.6.1 Calories, Fats, Protein, Carbohydrates
13.6.2 Amino Acids and Protein
13.6.4 Taste Profiles and Allergenicity
14 Quinoa as a Sustainable Protein Source: Production, Nutrition, and Processing
14.2 Production of Quinoa
14.2.1 Growing Regions and Yields
14.2.4 Energy Use and Cost
14.4.3 Protein Digestibility
14.4.3.1 Animal Feeding Experiments
14.4.3.2 Human Feeding Experiments
14.4.4 Macro- and Micronutrients and Phytochemicals
14.4.4.4 Vitamins and Minerals
14.4.5 Antinutritional Factors and Allergenicity
14.4.5.1 Antinutritional Factors
14.5.1 Quinoa Seed From “Farm to Fork”
14.6 Quinoa Protein Functionality, Off-Tastes, and Challenges
14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Research Needs
15 Amaranth Part 1—Sustainable Crop for the 21st Century: Food Properties and Nutraceuticals for Improving Human Health
15.2 Nutritional Components in Amaranth
15.3 Amaranth Proteins and Amino Acids for Human Nutrition
15.4 Bioactive Peptides Related to Antihypertensive Functions
15.5 Antioxidant Capacities of Amaranth Peptides
15.6 Potential Uses of Amaranth Proteins in the Food Industry
15.7 Genetic Engineering of Amaranth Proteins
16 Amaranth Part 2–Sustainability, Processing, and Applications of Amaranth
16.1 Sustainability of Amaranth Production
16.1.1 Origin and Distribution
16.1.2 Production and Yield
16.1.3 Land, Water, and Energy Uses
16.1.5 Postharvest Processing (Cleaning and Storage)
16.2 Processing of Amaranth
16.2.1 Milling and Fractionation
16.2.2 Wet Milling for Production of Starch-Rich, Fiber-Rich, or Protein-Rich Fractions (Protein Concentrates and Isolates)
17 Chia—The New Golden Seed for the 21st Century: Nutraceutical Properties and Technological Uses
17.2 Sustainability of Chia
17.4.3 Phenolic Compounds
17.4.4 Protein Content and Amino Acids
17.4.4.2 Peptides With Possible Antihypertensive Effects
17.4.5 Polyphenols, Oil, and Peptides With Antioxidant Capacity
17.5 Chia Compounds Significant to the Food Industry
17.5.1 Antioxidant Properties
17.5.3 Functional Benefits
17.6 The Future of Chia Seeds: Molecular Engineering and Gene Editing
II. Upcoming Sources of Proteins
18 Proteins From Canola/Rapeseed: Current Status
18.3.1 Chemical Composition of the Seed
18.3.2 Protein Types of C/RS
18.4 Processes of Protein Product Preparation
18.4.1 Significant Considerations
18.4.2 Involving Aqueous Alkaline Conditions
18.4.3 Processes Targeting Specific Seed Protein Types/Fractions
18.4.3.1 Protein Micelle Mass Formation
18.4.3.2 Chromatographic Separation
18.4.3.3 Solubility-Based Separation
18.4.4 Combination of Chemical and Physical Methods
18.5.1 Amino Acid Composition
18.5.2 Digestibility in Human and Animal Models and the Processing Effects
18.6 Antinutritional Factors of C/RS
18.6.4 Carbohydrates and Fiber
18.7 Allergenicity of C/RS Proteins
18.8 Functional Properties of Protein Products
18.8.2 Emulsifying Properties
18.8.3 Heat-Induced Gel Formation Ability
18.8.4 Foaming Properties
18.9 Applications and Current Products
18.9.1 Potential Food Applications as Protein Supplements or Bulk Proteins
18.10 Potential New Uses, Issues, and Challenges
18.10.1.1 Bioactive Peptides
18.10.2 Issues and Challenges
18.11 Off-Tastes Associated With Using Oilseed Proteins
Websites and electronic documents: Accessed during January 1–September 1, 2015
19 Mycoprotein: A Healthy New Protein With a Low Environmental Impact
19.1 Origins and Discovery of Mycoprotein
19.2 Food Safety and the Regulatory Framework
19.3 Cultivation and Processing of Mycoprotein
19.3.1 Fungal Fermentation Technology
19.3.1.1 Air Lift Fermentation
19.3.2 Mycoprotein and the Creation of Meat-Like Texture
19.3.2.1 Hypotheses on Texture Creation
19.3.2.2 Hyphal Morphology
19.3.2.3 Interaction Between Hyphae
19.3.2.4 Orientation and Dispersion of the Hyphae
19.3.3 Process Variables That Impact Quality
19.3.3.3 Thermal Gel Creation
19.3.3.4 Freezing and Frozen Storage
19.3.4 Creation of Granular Comminute Texture
19.4 Nutritional Characteristics of Mycoprotein
19.4.1 Nutritional Properties
19.4.2 Nutrition Research
19.4.2.1 Effects on Total Cholesterol, LDL Cholesterol, and High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol
19.4.2.2 Effects on Satiety
19.4.2.3 Effects on the Glycemic Response
19.5 Mycoprotein and Environmental Impact
19.5.1 Environmental Impact
19.5.1.1 Product Carbon Footprint
19.5.1.1.2 Results and Key Comparisons
19.5.2 How Low Can We Go?
19.5.2.1 Cradle to Cradle Approach
20 Heterotrophic Microalgae: A Scalable and Sustainable Protein Source
20.2 Chlorella Classification
20.4 Sustainability Profile
20.4.1 Case Study: TerraVia Inc.
20.4.2 A Low Environmental Impact
20.4.2.2 Water Consumption
20.4.3 Climate Change Adaptation and Resilience
20.5 Nutritional Value and Safety
20.6 Properties and Applications of Whole Algae Protein
21 Edible Insects: A Neglected and Promising Food Source
21.5.1 Protein Content and Amino Acids
21.5.2 Fats and Fatty Acids
21.8 Processing and Marketing
III. Consumers and Sustainability
22 Meat Reduction and Plant-Based Food: Replacement of Meat: Nutritional, Health, and Social Aspects
22.1 Transition Towards Plant-Based Protein Supplementations
22.2 Plant Protein Sources: Nutritional Adequacy Aspects
22.3 Plant-Based Protein Sources: Health and Wellbeing Aspects
22.3.1 Systemic and Gut Health Impacts
22.3.2 Satiety and Weight Management
22.4 Meat Replacement: Social Aspects
22.4.1 The Complexity of Food Choice
22.4.2 Changing the Diet of a Nation
22.4.3 Decreasing Meat Consumption
22.5 Overall Concluding Remarks
23 Flavors, Taste Preferences, and the Consumer: Taste Modulation and Influencing Change in Dietary Patterns for a Sustaina...
23.1 Consumers: Dietary and Purchase Habits
23.2.1 Physiology of Taste
23.3 Why We Eat What We Eat: Taste Preferences and Influences
23.3.1 Genetics and Food Choices
23.3.2 Our Upbringing and Cultural Influence on Food Choices
23.3.3 Affording a Healthy Diet
23.3.4 Ice Cream, Broccoli, or Nuts?
23.4 Sustainable Protein Sources in Foods and their Challenges
23.4.1 Off-Tastes Associated With Plant Proteins
23.4.2 Role of Flavors in Modulating Off-Notes in Protein-Based Products
23.4.2.1 Bitter Taste Modulation
23.4.2.2 Astringency Modulation
23.4.3 Binding of Flavors by Proteins
23.5 Introduction of New Foods and Changing Consumer Habits
24 Food Security and Policy
24.2 Livestock: Facts and Trends
24.3 Rethinking Food Security
24.4 Growing Homogeneity in Global Food Supplies
24.5 Sociological Pathways for More Sustainable Protein Options
25 Feeding the Globe Nutritious Food in 2050: Obligations and Ethical Choices
25.2 Sustainable Protein Sources
25.2.1 Current State of Protein Production
25.2.2 Change in Consumption Patterns, Especially Meat and the Western Diet
25.2.3 Are We Consuming Too Much Protein?
25.2.4 Diet Change, Consumers, and Policies
25.2.5 Challenges With Diet Change
25.3 Environmentally Friendly Food Options
25.3.2 Newer Sources of Protein
25.4 Relevance of Big Food Manufacturers
25.5 Production of More Food From the Same Land (and Alternate Farming Methods)
25.5.1 Agriculture and Climate Change: Crop Adaptation
25.5.2 Are GMO’s Necessary to Feed the World?
25.6 Reduction in Food Waste
25.7 Using Microbiomes to Our Advantage
25.8 Sustainable Future Populations
25.9 Moral Obligations and Questions People Need to Debate
Sustainable Protein Sources
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