Chapter
1.5 Emissions Due to Cement, Fly Ash, GGBFS, and Admixtures
1.6 Emissions Due to Concrete Batching, Transport, and Placement
1.7 Summary of CO2 Emissions
1.8 Emissions Generated by Typical Commercially Produced Concretes
1.9 Case Study: The Role of Concrete in Sustainable Buildings
1.11 Recommendations and Perspectives
2 Life Cycle CO2 Evaluation on Reinforced Concrete Structures With High-Strength Concrete
2.2 Method of Evaluating Environmental Load for the Life Cycle of Building
2.2.1.1 Material Production Step
2.2.1.2 Transportation Step
2.2.1.3 Construction Work Step
2.2.2 Use/Maintenance Stage
2.2.3 Removal/Disposal Stage
2.3 Evaluating Environmental Load by the Application of High-Strength Concrete
2.3.1.1 Materials Production Step
2.3.1.2 Transportation Step
2.3.1.3 Construction Work Step
2.3.1.6 Removal Step and Disposal Step
2.3.2 Selection of High-Strength Concrete
2.3.3 Calculation of Quantity Reduction Effect by Application of High-Strength Concrete
2.3.4 Calculation of Building Lifespan
2.4 The Results of Environmental Performance by the Application of High-Strength Concrete
2.4.1 Energy Consumption and CO2 Emission in Construction Stage
2.4.2 Energy Consumption and CO2 Emission for Life Cycle
3 Assessment of CO2 Emissions Reduction in High-Rise Concrete Office Buildings Using Different Material-Use Options
3.2 System Definitions and Boundaries
3.3.1 Identify the Types and Quantities of Materials for Building Elements
3.3.2 CO2 Emissions Associated with Building Materials
3.3.3 Applying the Monte Carlo Method for CO2 Emission Prediction
3.3.4 Material-Use Options
3.3.5 Calculation Methods for Different Material-Use Options
3.3.5.1 Importing Regional Materials
3.3.5.2 Maintaining the Existing Structural and Nonstructural Building Elements
3.3.5.3 Reusing Existing Resources
3.3.5.4 Diverting Construction Wastes to Recycling
3.3.5.5 Offsite Fabricated Materials
3.4.1 CO2 Emissions from Building Elements
3.4.2 Impact of Different Material-Use Options
3.5 Discussions and Conclusions
4 Eco-Friendly Concretes With Reduced Water and Cement Content: Mix Design Principles and Experimental Tests
4.1 Concrete for Eco-Friendly Structures
4.2 Principles for the Development of Eco-Friendly Concretes With Low Environmental Impacts
4.2.2 Low-Carbon Concretes With Reduced Cement Contents
4.3.1 Overview and Targets
4.3.2 Constituents and Concrete Mix Design
4.4.1 Workability and Strength Development
4.4.2 Carbonation of the Concrete
4.4.3 Environmental Performance Evaluation
4.5 Application in Practice
5 Effect of Supplementary Cementitious Materials on Reduction of CO2 Emissions From Concrete
5.2 Life-Cycle CO2 Assessment Procedure for Concrete
5.2.1 Objective and Scope
5.2.3 CO2 Assessment Procedure
5.3 Database of Concrete Mix Proportions
5.3.1 Effect of SCMs on Bi
5.3.2 Effect of SCMs on Ci
5.3.3 Relation of Bi and Ci
5.3.4 Determination of Unit Binder Content
5.4 Design of SCMs to Reduce CO2 Emissions During Concrete Production
6 Binder and Carbon Dioxide Intensity Indexes as a Useful Tool to Estimate the Ecological Influence of Type and Maximum Agg ...
6.2 Environmental Friendliness in Civil Engineering
6.2.1 Conception of Binder and Carbon Intensity Indexes
6.2.2 Sustainable Technology for HSC
6.3 Materials and Methods
6.3.3 Superplasticizer and Air-Entraining Agent
6.3.5 Concrete Mix Recipes
6.4 Results and Discussion
6.4.1 Air Content and Density
6.4.3 Compressive Strength
6.4.4 Binder and Carbon Dioxide Indexes
6.4.5 Influence of Freeze–Thaw Cycles
7 CO2 Reduction Assessment of Alkali-Activated Concrete Based on Korean Life-Cycle Inventory Database
7.2 Assessment Procedure of CO2
7.2.2 CO2 Evaluation Procedure
7.2.3 Examples for CO2 Assessment
7.2.4 Comparisons of CO2 Footprints According to Different Concrete Types
7.2.5 Comparisons of CO2 Footprints in the Secondary Concrete Products
7.3 Performance Efficiency Indicator of Binder
7.4 Further Investigations
8 Introducing Bayer Liquor–Derived Geopolymers
8.1.1 The Geopolymer Industry
8.1.2 The Alumina Industry
8.1.4 Carbon and Embodied Energy
8.2 Process and Materials
8.2.1 Characterization of Materials
8.2.2 Bayer-Derived Geopolymer Synthesis
8.3 Comparison of Embodied Energy of OPC with Bayer-Derived Geopolymer
8.3.1.1 Embodied Energy Calculation
8.3.1.2 Embodied Energy of Bayer Liquor Feedstock
8.3.2 Results and Discussion
8.3.2.1 Embodied Energy of Concrete Formulations
8.3.2.2 Embodied Energy of Binding Agent
8.3.3 Bayer Liquor as a Waste Product
8.3.4 Embodied Energy Implications
8.3.5 Embodied Energy Conclusions
8.4 Development of Bayer-Derived Geopolymers
8.4.1 Ambient Curing: The Impact of Calcium and Fly Ash Sources
8.4.2 Aggregate Production: A Low-Risk, High-Volume Strategic Market
8.4.3 Aggregate Production: Possible Production Design
8.4.4 Aggregate Production: Embodied Energy
8.4.5 Aggregate Consumption: Bayer-Derived Geopolymer Aggregates Utilized in OPC Concrete
8.4.6 Product Application Conclusions
9 Alkali-Activated Cement-Based Binders (AACBs) as Durable and Cost-Competitive Low-CO2 Binder Materials: Some Shortcomings ...
9.3 Carbon Dioxide Emissions of AACB
9.4 Some Important Durability Issues of AACBs
9.4.3 Corrosion of Steel Reinforcement in AACBs
9.5 Conclusions and Future Trends
10 Progress in the Adoption of Geopolymer Cement
10.2 The Role of Chemical Research in the Commercialization of Geopolymers
10.3 Developments in Geopolymer Gel-Phase Chemistry
10.3.2 Binder-Phase Chemistry
10.3.3 Modeling of Phase Assemblage
10.4 Role of Particle Technology in the Optimization of Geopolymer Paste and Concrete
10.4.1 Particle-Shape Effects in Fresh Pastes
10.4.2 Water–Binder Ratio and Rheology of Geopolymer Pastes
10.4.3 Particle Packing and Mix Design in Geopolymer Concretes
10.5 Linking Geopolymer Binder Structure and Durability
10.5.1 Factors Affecting the Service Life of Reinforced Concrete
10.5.2 Microcracking Phenomena
10.5.3 Interfacial Transition Zone Effects
10.5.4 Microporosity in the Bulk of the Geopolymer Binder
10.6 Technical Challenges
10.7 Reduction in Carbon Emissions
10.9 Testing for Durability
10.11 Perspectives on Commercialization
11 An Overview on the Influence of Various Factors on the Properties of Geopolymer Concrete Derived From Industrial Byprod ...
11.2 Effect of Chemical Activators and Curing Regime on the Mechanical, Durability, Shrinkage, Microstructure, and Physical ...
11.2.1 Mechanical Properties
11.2.2 Dimensional Stability and Durability Properties
11.2.3 Microstructure of Geopolymer Matrix
11.2.4 Rheological and Physical Properties of Geopolymer
11.3 Effect of Particle-Size Distribution of Binder Phase and Additives on the Properties of Geopolymer
11.3.1 Mechanical Properties
11.3.2 Rheological and Physical Properties of Geopolymer
11.3.3 Microstructure of Geopolymer Matrix
11.4 The Effect of Aggressive Environmental Exposure on Properties of Geopolymers
11.4.1 Mechanical Properties
11.4.2 Microstructure Analysis of Geopolymer
11.4.4 Thermogravimetry Analysis
11.4.5 Physical Properties of Geopolymer
11.5 The Effect of Water Content and Forming Pressure on the Properties of Geopolymers
11.5.1 Mechanical Properties
11.6.1 Mechanical Properties
11.6.2 Microstructure of Geopolymer Matrix
11.6.3 Dimensional Stability
11.7 Summary of the Current Body of Knowledge and Discussions
12 Performance on an Alkali-Activated Cement-Based Binder (AACB) for Coating of an OPC Infrastructure Exposed to Chemical ...
12.2.1 Materials, Mix Design, Mortar and Concrete Mixing, and Concrete Coating
12.3 Experimental Procedures
12.3.1 Compressive Strength
12.3.2 Water Absorption by Immersion
12.3.3 Capillary Water Absorption
12.3.4 Resistance to Chemical Attack
12.4 Results and Discussion
12.4.1 Compressive Strength
12.4.2 Water Absorption by Immersion
12.4.3 Capillary Water Absorption
12.4.4 Resistance to Chemical Attack
12.4.4.1 Resistance to Sulfuric Acid Attack
12.4.4.2 Resistance to Nitric Acid Attack
12.4.4.3 Resistance to Hydrochloric Acid Attack
13 Alkali-Activated Cement (AAC) From Fly Ash and High-Magnesium Nickel Slag
13.2.2 AAC Manufacture and Characterization
13.3.1 Compressive Strength
13.3.2 Microstructure of AACs
13.3.3 Pore-Size Distribution
13.4 Sustainability of AACs
14 Bond Between Steel Reinforcement and Geopolymer Concrete
14.2 Experimental Program
14.2.1 GPC Mixes and Curing Regime
14.2.2 Reference OPC-Based Concrete
14.3 Experimental Results
14.3.1 Mechanical Characteristics
14.3.2 Low-Calcium FA GPC Bond Test Results
14.4 Model for Bond Strength Prediction of GPC
15 Boroaluminosilicate Geopolymers: Current Development and Future Potentials
15.2 Experimental Procedure
15.3 Results and Discussion
15.3.1 Compressive Strength
15.3.3 FTIR Analysis Results
15.5 Future Potential Studies
15.5.1.1 Aluminosilicate Source
15.5.1.2 Alkali Activator (Borax + NaOH)
15.5.2.1 Experiments to Determine Physical and Rheological Properties
15.5.2.2 Experiments to Determine Chemical Properties
15.5.2.3 Experiments to Determine Mechanical Properties
15.5.2.4 Experiments to Determine Thermal Properties
15.5.2.5 Evaluation of Microstructure
Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete
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