Front Cover

The Quality of Air

Advisory Board

The Quality of Air

Copyright

Contents

Contributors to Volume 73

Series Editor's Preface

Preface

I - Atmospheric Air Framework

1 - Physicochemistry of the Atmosphere

1. EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE

2. PHYSICAL PROCESSES

3. CHEMICAL PROCESSES

4. CLIMATE–CHEMISTRY INTERACTIONS

5. DYNAMICS AND LONG-RANGE TRANSPORTATION

6. BIOSPHERE, GEOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE INTERACTIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

2 - Pollutants and Air Pollution

1. AIR POLLUTION: CHEMICALS IN MOTION

2. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY POLLUTANTS

3. ‘CRITERIA’ AIR POLLUTANTS

3.1 Particle Matter Pollution

3.2 Ground-Level Ozone

3.3 Carbon Monoxide

3.4 Sulphur Oxides

3.5 Nitrogen Oxides

3.6 Lead

4. HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS

5. BIOLOGICAL POLLUTANTS

6. EMERGING POLLUTANTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

3 - Indoor Air Pollution

1. CLASSIFICATION OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

1.1 Major Inorganic Air Pollutants

1.1.1 Ozone

1.1.2 Nitrogen Oxides

1.2 Organic Indoor Air Pollutants

1.3 Airborne Particulate Matter

2. STRATEGIES FOR SAMPLING OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

2.1 Passive and Active Sampling

2.2 Strategies for Particulate Matter Sampling Indoors: Filter Materials and Sampling Devices

3. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

3.1 From Routine Analysis to Complex Approaches

3.2 Chromatographic Techniques for Determination of Organic Pollutants

3.3 Analytical Techniques for Characterisation of Indoor Particulate Matter

3.3.1 Elemental Characterisation

3.3.1.1 Nondestructive Techniques

3.3.1.2 Wet Chemical Analysis

3.3.2 Thermal–Optical Transmittance Analysis for Carbonaceous Fractions

4. ASSESSMENT OF INDOOR AIR QUALITY

5. TERPENE OXIDATION INDOORS

6. ASSESSMENT OF OXIDATIVE POTENTIAL OF PARTICULATE MATTER

7. COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH PROJECTS ON INDOOR AIR QUALITY

8. STATE-OF-THE-ART OF REGULATION FOR INDOOR AIR QUALITY

8.1 General Considerations

8.2 Health Limit and Guideline Values for Major Indoor Air Pollutants

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

4 - Outdoor Air Pollution

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THE ENVIRONMENTAL CYCLING OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTANTS

3. OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY IMPACTS

4. OUTDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

4.1 Inorganic Outdoor Air Pollutants

4.1.1 Carbon Monoxide

4.1.2 Sulphur Dioxide

4.1.3 Lead

4.1.4 Ozone and Nitrogen Oxides

4.2 Particulates

4.3 Organic Outdoor Air Pollutants

4.3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds

4.3.1.1 Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds

4.3.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives

4.3.3 Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Furans

4.3.4 Pesticides

4.3.5 Other Semivolatile Organic Compounds: Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers

4.4 Concluding Comments

REFERENCES

5 - Theoretical Predictive Air Quality Models

1. INTRODUCTION

2. AIR QUALITY MODELS FEATURES

3. DETERMINISTIC VERSUS STATISTICAL MODELS

4. STRUCTURE OF AIR QUALITY MODELS

5. DETERMINISTIC AIR QUALITY MODELS

5.1 Governing Equations

5.2 Steady State Gaussian Model

5.3 Time-Dependent Models: Eulerian and Lagrangian

5.3.1 Eulerian Model

5.3.2 Lagrangian Model

6. ENSEMBLES OF AIR QUALITY PREDICTIONS

7. CONCLUSIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

REFERENCES

6 - Lichens as Biomonitors of Heavy-Metal Pollution

1. INTRODUCTION

2. LICHENS AS BIOMONITORS OF AIR POLLUTION

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES EMPLOYED IN THE ANALYSIS OF LICHENS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF INORGANIC POLLUTANTS

3.1 Sampling Strategies

3.2 Sample Preparation

3.3 Analytical Techniques

3.3.1 Atomic Absorption and Atomic Emission Spectroscopies

3.3.2 Nuclear and X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopies

3.3.3 Electroanalytical Techniques

4. COMPARISON AMONG THE DIFFERENT METHODOLOGIES

5. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

II - Analysis of Air

7 - Analytical Process

1. THE PROBLEMS OF AIR QUALITY ANALYSIS

2. SAMPLING AIR: PARTICULATE MATTER

3. TRANSPORT AND PRESERVATION OF SAMPLES

4. ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

5. REMOTE SENSING OF SURFACE AIR

6. DIRECT ANALYSIS OF AIR COMPOSITION

7. AIR ANALYSIS IN THE FRAME OF GREEN ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

8 - Active Sampling of Air

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CONTAINERS WITH DEFINED VOLUME FOR AIR SAMPLING

2.1 Containers With a Variable Inner Volume

2.2 Containers With a Constant Inner Volume

3. ENRICHMENT AND/OR PRECONCENTRATION TECHNIQUES FOR DYNAMIC/ACTIVE ANALYTE SAMPLING FROM GASEOUS MEDIUM

4. DENUDATION TECHNIQUE AS A SPECIFIC INSTRUMENTAL SOLUTION IN THE FIELD OF DYNAMIC/ACTIVE ISOLATION AND PRECONCENTRATION TECH ...

5. PORTABLE AND HAND-HELD DEVICES APPLIED FOR AIR QUALITY MONITORING AS AN EXAMPLE OF ADVANCED DEVICES IN THE FIELD OF ACTIVE ...

6. AIR QUALITY MONITORING STATIONS AS AN EXAMPLE OF ONLINE STATIONARY ACTIVE SAMPLING DEVICES

7. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

REFERENCES

9 - Passive Air Sampling

1. INTRODUCTION TO PASSIVE AIR SAMPLING

2. COMPOUNDS SAMPLED

2.1 Gases

2.2 Volatile Organic Compounds

2.3 Semivolatile Organic Compounds

2.3.1 Pesticides

2.3.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

2.3.3 Polychlorinated Biphenyls

2.3.4 Polyhalogenated Hydrocarbons

2.3.5 Others Pollutants

3. SAMPLER DESIGNS

3.1 Diffusive Samplers

3.1.1 Badge Type

3.1.2 Axial Tubes

3.1.3 Radial Symmetry

3.2 Membrane Samplers

3.3 Solid-Phase Microextraction

3.4 Polyurethane Foams

3.5 XAD-Passive Air System

3.6 Others Samplers

4. ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLE PROCESSING

4.1 Traditional Extraction Methods

4.2 Green Chemistry Techniques

4.3 Clean-Up Methods

4.4 Analyte Determination

5. CALIBRATION MODELS

6. PLANNING A MONITORING CAMPAIGN

7. FINAL REMARKS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

10 - Sample Preservation and Measurement Techniques for the Determination of Air Quality

1. SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL AIR SAMPLES AND TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS

2. SAMPLING PROCEDURES

2.1 General Considerations

2.2 Sampling Strategies

2.2.1 Active Air Sampling Methods

2.2.2 Passive Air Sampling Methods

2.2.3 Online Sampling

2.3 Sampling Artifacts

2.3.1 Some Sampling Considerations for Active Air Samplers

2.3.2 Some Sampling Considerations for Passive Air Samplers

3. SOME SAMPLING APPROACHES FOR SPECIFIC CASE SCENARIOS

3.1 Airborne Particulate Matter Samplers

3.2 Hazardous Materials Sample Collection

3.3 Sampling Strategies for Biocontaminants

4. SAMPLE PRESERVATION

4.1 Sample Preservation for Inorganic Analysis

4.2 Sample Preservation and Holding Times for Organic Compounds Analysis

5. FIT-FOR-PURPOSE METHODS

5.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

5.1.1 Noninstrumental Methods

5.1.2 Instrumental Methods

5.1.3 Biomonitoring and Related Detection Methodologies

6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

11 - Application of Chemical Sensors and Sensor Matrixes to Air Quality Evaluation

LIST OF SUBJECTS AND SUB-SUBJECTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL SENSORS

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF METROLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF CHEMICAL SENSOR

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL SENSORS UTILISED FOR AIR QUALITY CONTROL

5. DESIGN OF CHEMICAL SENSORS UTILISED FOR CONTROL OF AIR QUALITY

5.1 Electrochemical Sensor

5.2 Semiconductor Sensor or MOS-Type Sensor

5.3 Thermal Sensor (Pellistor)

5.4 IR-Type Sensor

5.5 Sensor of PID Type

6. COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE CHEMICAL SENSORS FOR AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT

7. SENSOR MATRIXES FOR AIR QUALITY MEASUREMENT

7.1 Chemical Sensors Most Frequently Utilised in Design of Electronic Nose Instruments

7.1.1 Sensors With Conductive Polymers

7.1.2 Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors

7.1.3 Quartz Crystal Microbalance Sensor

7.2 Commercially Available Sensor Matrixes for Air Quality Measurement

8. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

REFERENCES

12 - Spectroscopic Measurement of Pollutant Gases

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS

3. SPECTROSCOPY OVERVIEW

4. ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY

4.1 UV Photometry

4.2 Nondispersive Infrared Spectrometry

4.3 Differential Optical Absorption Spectroscopy

4.4 Long Pathlength Cells

4.5 Cavity Ring-Down Spectroscopy

4.6 Cavity-Enhanced Absorption Spectroscopy

4.7 Cavity-Attenuated Phase-Shift Spectroscopy

4.8 Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy

5. EMISSION METHODS

5.1 Chemiluminescence Monitors

5.2 Fluorescence Spectroscopy

6. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK

REFERENCES

13 - Volatile and Semivolatile Organic Compounds Determination in Air

1. INTRODUCTION

2. MONITORING METHODOLOGIES OF VOCS

2.1 Passive Sampling

2.2 Active Sampling

2.3 Equipment for Sampling VOCs

2.3.1 Passive Sampling

2.3.2 Active Sampling

2.3.3 Sampling by Adsorption

2.3.4 Sampling by Reaction

2.4 Type of Desorption of VOCs

2.4.1 Desorption with Solvent

2.4.2 Thermal Desorption

3. MONITORING METHODOLOGIES OF SVOCS

REFERENCES

14 - Particulate Material Analysis in Air

1. INTRODUCTION

2. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SUSPENDED PARTICLES

2.1 Main Sources of Particulate Matter in Air

2.2 Classification of Particulate Matter

2.3 Effects of Particulate Matter in Air on the Environment

2.3.1 Effects of Particle Size and Composition on Health

3. AIR QUALITY REGULATION GUIDELINES FOR PARTICULATE MATTER (EU, EPA, WHO)

4. MEASUREMENT METHODS/TECHNIQUES FOR PARTICULATE MATTER

4.1 General Aspects of Methods Used for Analysis of Particulate Matter

4.1.1 Collection Medium for Air Sampling in Particulate Analysis

4.2 The Reference Method for PM10

4.2.1 Sampling System Components

4.3 The Equivalence Methods

4.3.1 Beta Ray Absorption Method (Beta Ray Attenuation)

4.3.2 Tapered Element Oscillating Microbalance

4.3.3 TEOM-FDMS (TEOM With Filter Dynamics System)

4.3.4 Light-Scattering Technology

4.3.5 Methods Referred to Nephelometry

5. OTHER METHODS USED IN ANALYSIS OF PARTICULATE MATTER

5.1 Electron Microscopy

6. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

15 - Ultrafine Particles Pollution and Measurements

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SOURCES OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES

2.1 Combustion Sources

2.2 Secondary Formation by Atmospheric Processing

2.3 Other Sources

3. MEASUREMENTS OF ULTRAFINE PARTICLES

3.1 Method Description

4. CALIBRATION METHODS

4.1 General Aspects of Instrument Calibration

4.2 Condensation Particle Counters

4.3 Mobility Particle Size Spectrometers

5. MEASUREMENT METRICS

6. ULTRAFINE PARTICLE POLLUTION IN URBAN ENVIRONMENTS

7. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE OUTLOOK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

16 - Bioaerosol Monitoring of the Atmosphere for Occupational and Environmental Purposes

1. BACKGROUND

2. REAL-TIME ANALYSIS OF PRIMARY BIOLOGICAL AEROSOL PARTICLES

2.1 Ultraviolet Aerodynamic Particle Sizer

2.2 Wideband-Integrated Bioaerosol Sensor (WIBS-4 and WIBS-4A)

2.3 BioScout

2.4 Automatic Pollen Counter

2.5 BAA500 Pollen Monitor

2.6 Future Instrumental Developments

2.7 Instrumental Comparison

3. APPLICATIONS OF REAL-TIME FLOW-CYTOMETRY TO OUTDOOR AND INDOOR AIR ANALYSIS OF BIOAEROSOLS

4. IMPACTS ON ENVIRONMENTAL AND OCCUPATIONAL MONITORING OF AIRBORNE PBAP

4.1 A “Pristine” Protected National Park

4.2 A Green Waste/Composting Commercial Site

4.3 An Occupied University Classroom

4.4 A Swine Containment Building

5. AN OVERVIEW OF BIOAEROSOL CONCENTRATION LEVELS MEASURED IN AIR

6. FUTURE PROSPECTS

GLOSSARY OF ACRONYMS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

III - Real Scenarios

17 - Pesticides and Agricultural Air Quality

1. INTRODUCTION

2. EMISSIONS AND BEHAVIOUR OF PESTICIDES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

3. SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS OF PESTICIDES IN AMBIENT AIR

3.1. Sampling

3.1.1 Active Sampling

3.1.2 Materials for Sample Collection

3.1.3 Passive Air sampling

3.2 Analysis

3.2.1 Extraction

3.2.2 Cleanup

3.2.3 Determination

3.2.3.1 GC Detection Methods

3.2.3.2 LC Detection Methods

4. OCCURRENCE OF PESTICIDES IN AMBIENT AIR

5. EXPOSURE AND RISK ASSESSMENT OF PESTICIDES IN AMBIENT AIR

6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

REFERENCES

18 - Air Quality Downwind of Burned Areas

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scale and Impact of Vegetation Burning

1.2 Significance for Human Health

2. SOURCES AND QUANTITIES OF EMISSIONS

2.1 Natural Sources

2.2 Human Initiated Burning

2.3 Smouldering Peat

2.4 Emissions From Post-Fire-Burned Areas

3. THE NATURE OF THE EMISSIONS

3.1 Composition of Biomass Fuels

3.2 Physical and Chemical Processes Affecting Emissions

3.2.1 Pyrolysis Stage of Combustion

3.2.2 Ignition and Flaming Stages

3.2.3 Smouldering Stage

3.3 Other Factors Affecting the Nature of Emissions

4. TRANSPORT, DISPERSION AND TRANSFORMATION OF COMPOUNDS AND PARTICLES

5. EFFECTS OF TRANSPORTED PLUMES ON GROUND-LEVEL AIR QUALITY

5.1 Pollutants Affecting Air Quality

5.2 Local Meteorology and Effects on Air Quality

5.3 Example of Transport of Plumes From Fires: 21 July 2012, Central North America

6. REMOTE SENSING OF EMISSIONS

7. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

REFERENCES

19 - Air Quality in European Cities

1. INTRODUCTION

2. GASEOUS AND PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS IN URBAN ENVIRONMENTS

2.1 Ozone

2.2 Particulate Matter

2.3 Nitrogen Dioxide

2.4 Sulphur Dioxide

2.5 Carbon Monoxide

2.6 Heavy Metals

3. NEW MEASURING TECHNICS DEVELOPMENTS AND EMERGING ISSUES

3.1 The Aerosol Chemical Speciation Monitor

3.2 The Proton-Transfer-Reaction Mass Spectrometer

3.3 The Particle-Into-Liquid Sampler

3.4 The Dithiothreitol Assay for the Oxidative Potential of Aerosol

4. SOURCES (PRIMARY, SECONDARY, LONG-RANGE TRANSPORT)

5. SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION OF INCREASING IMPORTANCE: WOOD BURNING

5.1 Open Fires

5.2 Wintertime Biomass Smoke

5.3 Domestic Burning and Economic Crisis

6. SEASONALITY AND INTERRANUAL TRENDS OF GASEOUS AND PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS

7. LEVELS

7.1 Air Quality Indexes

7.2 North–South Gradient in Europe

8. THE CITY OF TOMORROW: PREDICTIONS (EMISSIONS/MITIGATIONS), GREEN CITIES (LOW EMISSION ZONES)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

SOURCES

20 - Home Air Quality

1. GENERALITY OF INDOOR AIR QUALITY

2. ORIGIN OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTION

2.1 Volatile Organic Compounds

2.2 Semivolatile Compounds

2.2.1 Pesticides

2.2.2 Endocrine Disruptors

2.2.2.1 Pesticides

2.2.2.2 Phthalates

2.2.2.3 Alkylphenols

2.2.2.4 Parabens

2.2.2.5 Polychlorinated Biphenyls

2.2.2.6 Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers

2.2.2.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons

2.2.3 Biological Indoor Air Pollution

REFERENCES

21 - Air Quality and the Petroleum Industry

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SUSTAINABLE AIR QUALITY AND THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

2.1 Strategies for Sustaining Air Quality

2.2 Estimation of the Impact of Air Pollutants

3. IMPACT OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY ON AIR QUALITY

3.1 Production of Petroleum

3.2 Transportation of Petroleum

3.3 Refining of Petroleum

3.3.1 Overview

3.3.2 Petroleum Processing Operations

3.4 Transportation and Marketing of Petroleum Products

4. CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF AIR POLLUTION IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

4.1 Storage and Handling Emissions

4.2 Fugitive Emissions

4.3 Process Emissions

4.4 Secondary Emissions

5. PERSPECTIVES AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

22 - Pharmaceutical Industries Air Quality

1. INTRODUCTION

2. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE IN PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRIES: AN OVERVIEW

3. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING, SAMPLE METHODS AND ANALYSIS

3.1 Environmental Monitoring and Sampling Methods

3.2 Pharmaceutical Drugs Normally Considered as Nonvolatile Compounds: Cytostatic Antibiotics, Glucocorticoids and Steroids

3.2.1 Antineoplastic and Cytotoxic Drugs

3.2.2 Glucocorticoids

3.2.3 Steroids

3.2.4 Antibiotics

3.2.5 Anaesthetics

4. RISK ASSESSMENT: SUGGESTIONS AND ISSUES

4.1 NOAEL, LOEL and OEL

4.2 Threshold of Toxicological Concern

5. MAIN HEALTH EFFECTS

5.1 Acute Pharmacological Effects

5.2 Chronic Effects

5.2.1 Steroid Hormones

5.2.2 Cytotoxic Anticancer Drugs

5.2.3 Sensitisers

5.2.4 Antibiotic Resistance–Inducing Compounds

5.3 Epidemiologic Data

REFERENCES

23 - Print and Related Industry Air Quality

1. PRINTING INDUSTRY AS POLLUTER

1.1 Printing Inks

1.2 Washout Solvents

1.3 Offset Printing

1.4 Flexographic Printing

1.5 Screen Printing

1.6 Pad Printing

1.7 Digital Printing

1.8 Quantitative Analysis of Specific Printing Pollution

2. PHOTOCOPYING AS POLLUTER

2.1 Carbon Monoxide Emission

2.2 Carbon Dioxide Emission

2.3 Nitrogen Dioxide Emission

2.4 Ammonia Emission

2.5 Perchloroethylene Emission

2.6 Non-methane Hydrocarbons Emission

3. FUTURE TRENDS AND CHALLENGES IN THE FIELD OF PRINTING

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

24 - Pesticide Industries Air Quality

1. PESTICIDE INDUSTRY AIR QUALITY

2. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE

3. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS EXPOSURE

3.1 Very Volatile, Volatile and Semivolatile Organic Compounds

3.2 Particulate Organic Materials and Aerosols

4. SAMPLING, SAMPLE TREATMENT AND DETERMINATIONS IN AMBIENT AIR OF PHYTOSANITARY PLANTS

5. PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

6. CHALLENGES AND PROPOSALS FOR THE PESTICIDE INDUSTRY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

25 - Cement Manufacturing and Air Quality

1. INTRODUCTION

2. ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE OF CEMENT PRODUCTION

2.1 Dust

2.2 Gaseous Atmospheric Emissions

2.2.1 Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide

2.2.2 Nitrogen Oxides

2.2.3 Sulphur Oxides

2.2.4 Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrogen Fluoride

2.2.5 Ammonia

2.2.6 Organic Compounds

2.2.6.1 Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxin/Polychlorinated Dibenzofuran Emissions

2.2.6.2 Controlling Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxin/Polychlorinated Dibenzofuran Emissions

2.3 Trace Elements

2.3.1 Emission of Mercury

2.4 Mode of Operation

2.4.1 Circulation of Volatile Components

2.5 Other ‘Emissions’

2.6 Normal Emission Levels From Rotary Kilns

2.7 Impacts on Emissions by Utilising Wastes

3. OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE AND POTENTIAL RISKS TO HUMAN HEALTH

REFERENCES

26 - Ceramic Industry Air Quality. Emissions Into the Atmosphere From Ceramic Tile Processes

1. INTRODUCTION

2. EMISSIONS INTO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM CERAMIC PROCESSES AND PLANTS

2.1 Classification per Manufacturing Phase and Function

2.2 The Pollutants

3. THE CHARACTERISATION OF EMISSIONS INTO THE ATMOSPHERE

3.1 Measures of Flow Rate and Pollutants Concentration

3.2 Parameters and Indicators for the Characterisation

4. EVOLUTION OF THE EMISSIONS INTO THE ATMOSPHERE FROM CERAMIC TILE INDUSTRIES IN ITALY

4.1 General Approach

4.2 The Remediation of the Sassuolo Ceramic District

4.3 The Pollutant Mass Flow as an Emission Limit

4.4 The Environmental Management

4.5 Environmental Performance and Competitiveness. Environmental Product Labels and the New ISO Standard on Sustainable Tiles a ...

4.6 State of the Emissions Into the Atmosphere From Ceramic Tiles Manufacture in the Most Recent Years

5. CONCLUSIONS

LIST OF ACRONYMS

REFERENCES

27 - Air Quality in Metal Industries: Exhaled Breath Condensate, a Tool for Noninvasive Evaluation of Air Pollution ...

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Environmental Hazards and Health

1.2 Occupational Health and Air Quality

1.3 Human Biomonitoring for Health Assessment

1.4 Assessing Occupational Exposure to Metals

1.5 Biomarker of Exposure for the Respiratory System

1.6 Exhaled Breath Condensate, a Tool for Noninvasive Evaluation of Air Pollution

1.7 Collection of EBC

1.8 Validation of EBC Method

2. A CASE STUDY: USING EBC TO ASSESS EXPOSURE IN WORKERS OF THE LEAD INDUSTRY

2.1 EBC a Tool for Noninvasive Evaluation of Pb Exposure

2.2 Study Design

2.3 Characterisation of Exposed and Nonexposed Workers

2.4 Work Environment Monitoring: Air Particulate Matter

2.4.1 PM Gravimetric and Chemical Analysis

2.4.2 PM Levels and Chemical Composition

2.5 Biomonitoring With EBC

2.5.1 Preanalytical and Analytical Considerations in EBC Analysis

2.5.2 Optimisation of the EBC Sample Preparation and Validation of the Analytical Procedure

2.5.3 Pb Concentrations in EBC

2.5.4 Pb Concentrations in EBC Versus Pb Levels in the Work Environment

2.5.5 Pb Concentrations in EBC and in Blood in Exposed Workers

3. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD

4. FUTURE PERSPECTIVES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

28 - Air Quality Management in Electronic Industries

1. OVERVIEW OF ELECTRONIC INDUSTRIES

2. PROCESSES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO AIR EMISSIONS

2.1 Materials Phase

2.2 Manufacturing Phase

2.3 Packaging, Transportation and Distribution Phase

2.4 Use Phase

2.5 End-of-Life Phase

3. TYPE OF CHEMICALS AND HEALTH EFFECTS

4. MEASUREMENT AND ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES

4.1 Sampling Technique

4.2 Analytical Technique

5. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS RELATED TO ELECTRONIC INDUSTRIES

6. TECHNOLOGY USED TO CONTROL AIR EMISSIONS

6.1 Vapour Permeation Technique

6.2 Membrane-Based Gas Absorption Technique

6.3 Condenser Pretreatment Technique

6.4 Recovery/Recycle Technique

6.5 Cryogenic and Oxidation Techniques

6.6 Biofiltration Technique

6.7 Industrial Case Study

6.8 Overview of the Different Technologies

7. CONCLUSION

8. RECOMMENDATIONS TO IMPROVE AIR QUALITY IN ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY

REFERENCES

29 - Air Quality of Textile and Related Industries

1. RELEVANCE OF ASSESSING CHEMICAL EXPOSURE IN TEXTILE AND RELATED INDUSTRIES

1.1 Legislation

1.2 Occupational Exposure Limits

2. OPERATIONS AND CHEMICAL PRODUCTS INVOLVED IN TEXTILE AND SHOEMAKING INDUSTRIES

2.1 Manufacturing Processes

2.2 Chemical Products in Textiles and Related Industries

2.3 Exposure Control Measures

3. SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL METHODOLOGIES FOR AIR QUALITY MONITORING

3.1 Monitoring Methods

3.2 Sampling Methods and Sample Selection

3.3 Analytical Methods

4. CHARACTERISATION OF EXPOSURE TO SUBSTANCES IN TEXTILE AND SHOEMAKING INDUSTRIES

4.1 Parameters for Quantification of the Exposure

5. TRENDS AND CHANGES IN THE FORMULATION OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS TO REDUCE HEALTH RISKS DUE TO EXPOSURE TO CHEMICALS

5.1 Reduction of Exposure Index by Using Less Dangerous Chemicals

5.2 Reducing of Risk by No Using COVs

6. WORKING PRACTICES INFLUENCING AIR QUALITY

6.1 Use of Exposure Control Measures

6.2 Changes in Formulation of Chemical Products

6.3 Risk Prevention

REFERENCES

30 - Exposure to Softwood Dust in the Wood Industry

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Health Effects of Wood Dust

1.2 Exposure Assessment of Wood Dust

1.2.1 Active Sampling

1.2.2 Passive Sampling

1.2.3 Real-Time Monitoring

1.2.4 Occupational Exposure Limits for Wood Dust

2. EXPOSURES IN SAWMILLS

2.1 The Sawing Process

2.2 Exposure Levels

2.3 Determinants of Exposure

3. EXPOSURE IN FURNITURE FACTORIES AND JOINERY SHOPS

3.1 The Process

3.2 Exposure Levels and Trends

3.3 Determinant for Exposure

4. EXPOSURE AT PRODUCTION OF WOOD PELLETS

4.1 Wood Pellet Production in Sweden

4.2 Exposure Levels and Trends

4.2.1 Active Sampling

4.2.2 Determinants for Exposure

5. WOOD DUST EXPOSURE IN OTHER INDUSTRIES

6. VARIATION IN EXPOSURE

7. OTHER EXPOSURES IN THE SOFTWOOD INDUSTRY

7.1 Monoterpenes

7.2 Resin Acids

8. CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

31 - Improving the Sustainability of Office Partition Manufacturing: A Case Study

1. INTRODUCTION

2. BACKGROUND

2.1 Furniture Manufacturing and Sustainability

2.2 Impact and Prevention of VOC Emissions

3. PROCESSES IN OFFICE PARTITION MANUFACTURING AND VOC EMISSIONS

4. DETERMINATION OF BASE VOC EMISSIONS FOR OFFICE PARTITION MANUFACTURING

4.1 Mass Balance Approach for Assessing Base Emissions

4.2 VOCs Emitted From the Office Partition Manufacturing Facility

5. MEASURES TO REDUCE VOC EMISSIONS

5.1 Best Management Practices

5.2 Paint Equipment Modifications

5.3 Production Process Modifications

5.4 Product Redesign

5.5 Recycling and Reuse

5.6 Abatement Technologies

6. METHODOLOGY FOR ASSESSING AND BALANCING MEASURES

7. RANKED POLLUTION PREVENTION MEASURES

8. DISCUSSION OF POLLUTION PREVENTION MEASURES RELATIVE TO EVALUATION CRITERIA

8.1 Best Management Practices

8.2 Equipment Modifications

8.3 Process Modifications

8.4 Product Modifications

8.5 Recycling and Reuse

8.6 Abatement

9. GENERAL DISCUSSION

10. DETAILED FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS

10.1 Best Management Practices

10.1.1 Standard Operating Procedures

10.1.1.1 Technical

10.1.1.2 Environmental

10.1.1.3 Economic

10.1.2 Preventative Maintenance

10.1.2.1 Technical

10.1.2.2 Environmental

10.1.2.3 Economic

10.1.3 Employee Training and Involvement

10.1.3.1 Technical

10.1.3.2 Environmental

10.1.3.3 Economic

10.1.4 Production Scheduling

10.1.5 Inventory Management

10.1.6 Scrap Reduction

10.1.6.1 Technical

10.1.6.2 Environmental

10.1.6.3 Economic

10.2 Equipment Modifications

10.2.1 Air Purge of Paint Lines

10.3 Production Process Modifications

10.3.1 Water-Based Coatings

10.3.1.1 Technical

10.3.1.2 Environmental

10.3.1.3 Economic

10.3.2 Hot-Melt Back-wrapping Adhesive

10.3.2.1 Technical

10.3.2.2 Environmental

10.3.2.3 Economic

10.4 Product Redesign

10.4.1 Mechanical Clip Attachment

10.4.1.1 Technical

10.4.1.2 Environmental

10.4.1.3 Economic

10.4.2 Not Painting Nonvisible Faces of Parts

10.4.2.1 Technical

10.4.2.2 Environmental

10.4.2.3 Economic

10.5 Recycling and Reuse

10.5.1 Solvent Recycling

10.5.1.1 Technical

10.5.1.2 Environmental

10.5.1.3 Economic

10.6 Summary of Results

11. MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL

11.1 Data Acquisition and Analysis

12. BENEFITS

12.1 Environmental Benefits

12.2 Economic Benefits

12.3 Indirect Benefits

13. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

32 - Indoor Air Quality in Chemical Laboratories

1. PERTINENT POLLUTANTS, SOURCES AND HEALTH EFFECTS

1.1 Particulate Matter

1.2 Trace Elements

1.3 Inorganic Gases

1.4 Bioaerosols

1.5 Volatile and Semivolatile Organic Compounds

2. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE CONCENTRATIONS OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS IN LABORATORIES

2.1 Source Strength

2.2 Ventilation

2.3 Building Characteristics

3. INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT

3.1 Thermal Comfort

3.2 Noise

3.3 Lighting

3.4 Vibration

3.5 Odour

4. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON LABORATORY INDOOR AIR QUALITY

5. INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

REFERENCES

IV - Legal Framework and Future Perspectives

33 - Damage Costs of Air Pollution and Policy Implications

1. INTRODUCTION

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 Impact Pathway Analysis

2.2 Life Cycle Assessment

2.3 Atmospheric Dispersion and Chemistry

2.4 Exposure–Response Functions

2.5 Monetary Valuation

2.6 Health Impacts

2.7 Climate Change

3. ASSUMPTIONS AND MODELS

3.1 Assumptions

3.2 ERFs and Unit Costs

3.3 Damage Costs for Typical Emissions in EU27

3.4 Uniform World Model: A Simple Model for Damage Cost Estimation

4. RESULTS FOR ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION

4.1 General Remarks

4.2 Damage Costs of Power in the EU27

4.3 Damage Costs of Power in the United States

4.4 The Nuclear Fuel Chain

4.4.1 Normal Operation

4.4.2 Nuclear Accidents

4.5 Renewable Energy Technologies

5. WASTE TREATMENT AND ENERGY RECOVERY

6. CONCLUSIONS

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

34 - The Challenges of Air Protection and Control

1. THE QUALITY OF AIR IN A SUSTAINABLE WORLD

2. REACH SCENARIOS OF AIR CONTAMINATION

3. MAKING DECISIONS FROM AIR QUALITY CONTROL

4. INDOOR AND OUTDOOR CONTROL OF AIR

5. SENSITIVITY AND SELECTIVITY CHALLENGES

6. FUTURE TRENDS IN AIR CONTROL

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

REFERENCES

Index

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

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