Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Contents

Contributors

Nomenclature

Introduction

Chapter 1 Some Representative Palm Pests: Ecological and Practical Data

1.1 Introduction

1.2 General Features About Palms and their Pests

1.2.1 Palm Features are Suited to Arthropod Herbivores

1.2.2 Main Arthropod Pests on Palms

1.2.3 Damage and Pest Management

1.3 Crown and Stem Borers

1.3.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management

1.3.2 Oryctes rhinoceros Linnaeus 1758 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

1.3.3 Scapanes australis Boisduval 1832 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

1.3.4 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier 1790 (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae)

1.3.5 Castnia daedalus Cramer 1775 (Lepidoptera: Castniidae)

1.3.6 Paysandisia archon Burmeister 1880 (Lepidoptera: Castniidae)

1.4 Defoliators of Fronds (= Leaves)

1.4.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management

1.4.2 Pistosia dactyliferae Maulik 1919 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

1.4.3 Brontispa longissima Gestro 1885 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

1.4.4 Coelaenomenodera lameensis Berti 1999 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

1.4.5 Setora nitens Walker 1855 (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

1.4.6 Sesamia nonagrioides Lefèbvre 1827 and Sesamia cretica Lederer 1857 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

1.5 Sap and Frond (= Leaves) Feeders?

1.5.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management

1.5.2 Ommatissus binotatus Fieber 1876 (Hemiptera: Tropiduchidae)

1.5.3 Aspidiotus destructor Signoret 1869 (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

1.5.4 Parlatoria blanchardi Targioni, 1868 (Homoptera, Diaspididae)

1.5.5 Aleurotrachelus atratus Hempel 1922 (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

1.6 Inflorescence and Fruit Borers

1.6.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management

1.6.2 Batrachedra amydraula Meyrick 1916 (Lepidoptera: Batrachedridae)

1.6.3 Tirathaba rufivena Walker 1864 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

1.6.4 Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller 1839 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

1.6.5 Cadra cautella Walker 1863 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

1.6.6 Aphomia sabella Hampson 1901 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

1.6.7 Virachola livia Klug 1834 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

1.6.8 Coccotrypes dactyliperda Fabricius 1801 (Coleoptera: Scolytidae)

1.6.9 Carpophilus hemipterus L. 1758 and Carpophilus mutilatus Erichson 1843 (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae)

1.7 Roots

1.7.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management

1.7.2 Sufetula sunidesalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

1.8 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2 Morphology and Physiology of Palm Trees as Related to Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon Infestation and Management

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Palms in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin

2.2.1 Palms and their Global Distribution

2.2.2 Palms in Horticulture

2.2.3 Palms in Gardening and Landscaping

2.3 Palm Morphology and Anatomy

2.4 The Palm Crown

2.4.1 Leaf Development, Structure, and Phyllotaxis

2.4.2 Palm Inflorescences

2.4.3 The Single Apical Meristem and "Palm Heart" Organization

2.4.4 Implication of Crown Structure for RPW/PBM Symptom Development

2.4.5 Implication of Crown Structure for Chemical and Biological Treatments

2.4.6 Implication of Crown Structure for Sanitation and Crown Dissection to Rescue Infected Palms

2.5 The Structure of the Palm Stem

2.5.1 Organization of the Stem through Cross- and Longitudinal Sections

2.5.2 The Palm Vasculature

2.5.3 Offshoots

2.5.4 Implications of Trunk and Vasculature Organization for RPW Symptom Development

2.5.5 Implication of Stem and Vasculature Organization for Chemical Treatments and their Application

2.5.6 Palms Roots: Adventitious Root System and its Possible Role in Recovery after RPW Infection

2.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 3 Economic and Social Impacts of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon on Palms

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Ecosystem Services Provided by Palms

3.2.1 Provisioning Services

3.2.2 Cultural Services

3.2.3 Regulating Services

3.3 Impacts and Costs of Mitigation

3.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 4 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus: Taxonomy, Distribution, Biology, and Life Cycle

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Taxonomy and Distribution

4.2.1 Systematic Position and Morphology

4.2.2 Past and Present Distribution

4.3 Biology and Host Plants

4.3.1 A Borer Species that Lives only on Palms

4.3.2 Critical Review of the Host Plants

4.4 Life Cycle and Adaptation to the Temperate and Desert Areas

4.4.1 Main Traits of the Life Cycle

4.4.2 Development Thermal Parameters

4.4.3 Estimating the Buffer Effect of Living in Palm Tissue

4.4.4 Thermal and Hygrometric Thresholds and Optima for the Adult (Table 4.2)

4.4.5 Refined Development Modelling and Flight Predicting for Temperate Areas

4.5 Conclusion

4.5.1 Relation to the Host Palm in the Invasion Area

4.5.2 Development and Adaptation to Temperate Climate

References

Chapter 5 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus: Behavior, Ecology, and Communication

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Main Behaviors Involved in Species Dynamics

5.2.1 Aggregation and Mating Behaviors

5.2.2 Flight and Dispersal Capability (Role of Age, Sex, and Mating Status)

5.3 Chemical Cues

5.3.1 Pheromones

5.3.2 Plant Volatile Chemicals

5.4 Vision and Visual Cues

5.4.1 Visual System

5.4.2 Color Vision

5.4.3 Tuning of Color Vision to Visual Cues

5.5 Conclusion

References

Chapter 6 Paysandisia archon: Taxonomy, Distribution, Biology, and Life Cycle

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Taxonomy of the Castniidae

6.3 Distribution of P. archon

6.4 Morphology of P. archon Stages

6.5 Biology

6.5.1 Host Plants

6.5.2 Life Cycle

6.6 Conclusion

References

Chapter 7 Paysandisia archon: Behavior, Ecology, and Communication

7.1 Introduction

7.2 P. archon Reproductive Behavior

7.2.1 Diel Periodicity of Mating

7.2.2 Courtship Behavior

7.2.3 Chemical Cues

7.3 Host-Finding and Chemical Cues

7.3.1 Behavior

7.3.2 Antenna Morphology

7.3.3 Chemical Cues

7.3.4 Conclusion

7.4 Visual Cues: Their Roles in Mate and Host Location

7.4.1 Optical Design of P. archon's Retina

7.4.2 Spectral Sensitivity of the Ocelli

7.4.3 Spectral and Polarization Sensitivity of the Retina

7.4.4 Tuning of Vision to Visual Cues

7.4.5 Hints for Designing Visual Traps and Laboratory Experiments

References

Chapter 8 Natural Enemies of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Natural Enemies

8.2.1 Parasitoids

8.2.2 Predators

8.2.3 Entomopathogens

8.3 Perspectives on Biological Control of R. ferrugineus and P. archon

References

Chapter 9 Visual Identification and Characterization of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon Infestation

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Non-Pathognomonic Symptoms

9.3 Pathognomonic Symptoms

9.4 Identification of RPW Infestation

9.4.1 Infestation in Canary Palm

9.4.2 Infestation in Date Palm

9.4.3 Infestations in Other Palm Species

9.5 Identification of PBM Infestation

9.6 Simultaneous Infestation of Both Pests and Co-Occurrence with Other Pests or Diseases

9.7 Conclusion

References

Chapter 10 Surveillance Techniques and Detection Methods for Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Acoustic Detection

10.2.1 Assumptions

10.2.2 Main Detection Tools, General Features, and Challenges

10.2.3 Advantages and Pitfalls

10.3 Chemical Detection

10.3.1 Assumptions

10.3.2 Main Detection Tools, General Features, and Challenges

10.3.3 Advantages and Pitfalls

10.4 Thermal Detection

10.4.1 Assumptions

10.4.2 Main Detection Tools, General Features and Challenges

10.4.3 Advantages and Pitfalls

10.5 Detection of Pest Distribution by Monitoring Traps

10.5.1 Assumptions and Methodology

10.5.2 Optimal Traps

10.5.3 Optimal Lures

10.5.4 Trap Position and Distribution for Monitoring RPW Dispersion

10.5.5 Advantages and Pitfalls

10.6 Conclusion

10.6.1 Perspectives for Accurate Early Detection of RPW and PBM

10.6.2 Future Challenges

References

Chapter 11 CPLAS Information System as a Monitoring Tool for Integrated Management of Palm Pests

11.1 Introduction

11.2 CPLAS Architecture and Functions

11.2.1 CPLAS Architecture

11.2.2 CPLAS Database

11.2.3 DSS for Infestation Risk Assessment and Spatiotemporal Risk Analysis

11.2.4 Data-acquisition Process

11.2.5 Implementation of CPLAS in Real Time: Case Studies

11.3 Web-mapping Service of CPLAS

11.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 12 Control Measures Against Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon

12.1 Why Control of R. ferrugineus and P. archon is so Difficult: Reasons to Deal with Both of these Pests Together

12.2 Current Control Methods

12.2.1 Legal Control

12.2.2 Cultural Control

12.2.3 Biological Control

12.2.4 Chemical Control

12.2.5 Control Methods Based on the use of Semiochemicals

12.3 Future Needs and Trends

References

Chapter 13 Action Programs for Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon

13.1 Introduction

13.2 General Measures against all IAS

13.3 Threats and Risks presented by IAS: The case of RPW and PBM

13.4 The Action Plan as Part of a Global Strategy for the Containment of RPW and PBM Infestations

13.5 Analysis of Pest Status and Distribution of RPW and PBM as a Strategy for Detecting Change and Emerging Impacts

13.6 Establishing Effective Systems to Assess Risk and Prioritize Management

13.7 Definition of an Early Warning and Monitoring System

13.8 Citizen Involvement in Undertaking Voluntary Measures to Counteract the Spread of RPW and PBM

13.9 Setup of an RPW and PBM Portal Online

13.10 Development of Funding Mechanisms to Manage RPW and PBM Infestations

13.11 Case Studies

13.11.1 R. ferrugineus in Israel

13.11.2 R. ferrugineus in Italy

13.11.3 R. ferrugineus in the Canary Islands

13.11.4 P. archon in the Marche Region (Italy)

13.12 Action Programs for Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Areas

13.13 Conclusion and Future Outlook

References

Index

Supplemental Images

EULA