Chapter
1.3.2 The Genital System in the Pig
1.3.3 The Genital System in the Ruminants (Constantinescu, 2001, 2004a)
1.3.4 The Genital System in the Horse
1.4 Genital Organs in Laboratory Mammals
1.4.1 The Genital System in the Rabbit (Barone et al., 1973; Barone, 1978; Constantinescu, 2004b)
1.4.2 The Genital System in the Mouse (Constantinescu, 2006)
1.4.3 The Genital System in the Rat (Constantinescu, 2007)
1.4.4 The Mammary Glands in Laboratory Animals (Figures 1.68-1.70)
1.4.5 The Genital System in the Xenopus laevis: African Clawed Frog (Constantinescu, 2005a)
1.4.6 The Genital System in the Brachidanio rerio (Zebrafish) (Constantinescu, 2005b)
2: Anatomy of Mammalian (Endocrine) Glands Controlling the Reproduction
2.1 The Hypothalamus Including the Hypophysis (Figures 2.1 and 2.2)
2.2 The Cerebral Epiphysis (see Figure 2.1)
2.3 The Thyroid Gland (Figure 2.3)
2.4 The Adrenal Glands (Figure 2.4)
3: Models for Investigating Placental Biology
3.2 Classification of Placenta
3.3 Development of Human Placenta
3.3.1 Trophoblast Subtypes and Development of Functional Placenta
3.3.2 Placental Development
3.3.3 Development of Fetal Membranes
3.4 Modeling Placental Development and Diseases of Placental Origin
3.4.1 In Vitro Cell Models
3.4.3 Alternative Animal Models
4: Early Developmental Programming of the Ovarian Reserve, Ovarian Function, and Fertility
4.2 Impact of Prenatal Environmental Challenges on Fetal Oogonia (Germ Cells)
4.3 Impact of Prenatal Environmental Challenges on Fetal Follicle/Oocyte Numbers (Healthy versus Atretic) and Oocyte Quality
4.4 Impact of Prenatal Environmental Challenges on the Ovarian Reserve (Total Number of Morphologically Healthy Follicles/Oocytes in Ovaries) in Offspring
4.5 Impact of Prenatal Environmental Challenges on Ovarian Function (e.g., Pituitary Gonadotropin Secretion, Ovarian Hormone/Growth Factor Production, Response to Gonadotropins, Follicle Development, Irregular Reproductive Cycles, and Ovulation Rate) in Offspring
4.6 Impact of Prenatal Environmental Challenges on Fertility (as Measured by Conception Rates, Fecundity, or Age at Puberty or Menopause) in Offspring
4.7 Summary and Conclusion
5: Small Non-Coding RNAS in Gametogenesis
5.1 Small Non-Coding RNAs
5.2 Function of sncRNAs in Gametogenesis
5.2.2 Function of miRNAs in the Process of Spermatogenesis
5.2.3 endo-siRNAs Biogenesis
5.2.4 endo-siRNAs in the Process of Spermatogenesis
5.2.6 Role of piRNAs in Male Germ Cell Development
6: The Ovarian Follicle of Cows as a Model for Human
6.1.1 Why We Know More About Cow Than Human Reproduction
6.2 A Similar Physiology of Folliculogenesis
6.2.1 Basic Physiology of Reproduction
6.2.2 Time from Primordial Follicle to Ovulation
6.2.4 Characteristics of the Dominant Follicle
6.3 Assisted Reproduction
6.3.1 Response to Ovarian Stimulation
6.3.2 Response to FSH Coasting
6.4 Testing the Competence Hypothesis
7: Production of Energy and Determination of Competence: Past Knowledge, Present Research, and Future Opportunities in Oocyte and Embryo Metabolism
7.3 The Relationship Between Oocyte Metabolism and Quality
7.3.1 Energy Substrates During Oocyte Maturation
7.3.2 Oocyte Metabolic Pathways
7.3.3 Oocyte Metabolism of Fatty Acids
7.4.1 Precompaction: More Than Just Pyruvate
7.4.2 Postcompaction: More Than Just Glucose
7.4.3 Lactate: The Other Carbohydrate
7.6 Toward Personalized Culture Media: Formulating Media for Specific Maternal Conditions
7.6.1 Maternal Impact on Embryo Development
7.6.2 Impaired Embryo Metabolism
7.6.3 Mitochondrial Dysfunction
7.6.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress
8: Signal Transduction Pathways in Oocyte Maturation
8.1.2 Oocyte Nuclear Maturation
8.1.3 Cumulus Cell Expansion
8.1.4 The Impact of FSH During In Vitro Maturation
8.2.2 Cyclic Nucleotide Signaling
8.2.3 Phosphodiesterase Superfamily
8.2.4 Oocyte Meiosis and cAMP
8.2.7 Cyclic GMP and PDE5/6
8.2.8 Cellular Compartmentalization of Cyclic Nucleotide Signaling
8.2.9 C-Type Natriuretic Peptide (CNP) and cGMP
8.3 Gap Junction Communications
8.3.1 Connexin, Connexon, and Gap Junctions
8.3.2 Gap Junction Communications and Oocyte Maturation
8.4 Metabolic Switch (AMPK)
8.4.2 Structure and Regulation of AMPK
8.4.4 Downstream Targets of AMPK
8.4.5 AMPK in Reproductive Function
8.4.6 AMPK in Oocyte Function
9: Pig Models of Reproduction
9.2 Early Embryonic Development
9.5 Tubouterine Contractility
9.6 Development to the Blastocyst Stage
9.7 Pregnancy and Developmental Programming
10: The Mare as an Animal Model for Reproductive Aging in the Woman
10.2 Ovarian Activity and Reproductive Cycles
10.2.2 Assessment of Antral Follicles
10.2.3 Reproductive Cycles
10.2.4 Reproductive Senescence
10.3.1 Follicle Growth and Selection
10.3.2 Follicular Environment
10.4.1 Natural Decline in Fertility with Aging
10.4.2 Assisted Reproductive Procedures
10.4.3 Maternal Age and Pregnancy Failure
10.5.2 Oocyte Morphology and Viability
11: Spotlight on Reproduction in Domestic Dogs as a Model for Human Reproduction
11.1.1 Scope of the Chapter
11.1.2 Dog's Importance to Modern Human Society
11.1.7 Dog as a Model for Human Genetic Disorders
11.2.1 Dog Onset of Puberty
11.2.3 Reproductive Anatomy of the Male Dog
11.2.4 Reproductive Physiology of the Male Dog
11.2.5 Reproductive Anatomy of the Female Dog
11.2.6 Reproductive Physiology of the Female Dog
11.2.8 Dog Pregnancy, Development and Birth
11.3 Dog-Assisted Reproductive Technology
11.3.1 Artificial Insemination
11.3.3 Oocyte In Vitro Maturation
11.3.4 In Vitro Fertilization
11.3.5 Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection
11.3.9 Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer in Dogs
11.3.10 Dog Embryonic Stem Cells and Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
11.3.11 Genetically Modified Dogs
11.5 The Dog as a Model for Human Reproduction
11.5.1 Disorders of Sexual Development
11.6 Concluding Statements
12: Animal Models of Inflammation During Pregnancy
12.2 Local Inflammation of the Pregnant Female Reproductive Tract
12.2.2 In Utero Inflammation and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes
12.2.3 Ascending Infections and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes
12.3 Systemic Inflammation During Pregnancy
12.3.2 Systemic Viral or Bacterial Infection
12.3.3 Maternal Stress: Chronic Sterile Inflammation
12.3.4 Preeclampsia-Related Inflammation Models
12.3.5 Models of Antiphospholipid Antibody Syndrome (APS)
12.4 Genetic Models and Cellular Manipulation to Study Inflammation During Pregnancy
12.4.2 Breeding Cross Models of Induced Inflammation
12.4.3 Genetically Modified Models of Inflammation and Pregnancy
12.4.4 Immune Cell Manipulation to Study Inflammation
12.5 Inflammation During Pregnancy and Offspring Disease
12.5.2 Models of Inflammation During Pregnancy Resulting in Offspring Disease
12.6 Perspectives and Conclusions
13: Practical Approaches, Achievements, and Perspectives in the Study on Signal Transduction in Oocyte Maturation and Fertilization: Focusing on the African Clawed Frog Xenopus laevis as an Animal Model
13.1 Introduction to Reproductive Biology of Frog Oocytes and Eggs
13.2 Practical Approaches
13.2.1 Maintenance of Adult Frogs
13.2.2 Collection of Immature Oocytes and Unfertilized Eggs
13.2.3 Preparation of Sperm
13.2.4 In Vitro Oocyte Maturation and Fertilization
13.2.5 Microinjection and Other Pharmacological Treatments
13.2.6 Biochemical Fractionations of Oocytes and Eggs
13.2.7 Biochemical and Cell Biological Assays
13.2.8 Indirect Immunofluorescent Study
13.2.9 Protein Identification by Mass Spectrometry Analysis
13.2.10 Emerging Approaches: Live-Cell Imaging and Genome Manipulations
13.3 Achievements and Perspectives
14: Prezygotic Chromosomal Examination of Mouse Spermatozoa
14.2 Procedure of Sperm Chromosome Screening
14.2.1 Sperm Genome Cloning Using an Androgenic Embryo (Step (a))
14.2.2 Induction of PCC for Rapid Chromosome Visualization (Step (b))
14.2.3 Production of Diploid Embryos by Fusion of Blastomere with MII Oocytes (Step (c))
14.3 Practical Use of SCS Before Fertilization
15: Molecular and Cellular Aspects of Mammalian Sperm Acrosomal Exocytosis
15.2 Structure of the Acrosome
15.3 Intermediate Stages of Exocytosis
15.4 Sperm Capacitation Prepare the Sperm to Undergo Acrosomal Exocytosis
15.5 Physiological Site for the Occurrence of Acrosomal Exocytosis
15.6 SNARES and Other Proteins from the Fusion Machinery
16: Sperm Chromatin Dynamics Associated with Male Fertility in Mammals
16.2 Sperm Chromatin Structure Modulates Sperm Nuclear Shape and Function
16.3 The Bull Is a Suitable Model for the Study of Male Fertility in Humans
16.4 Conclusions and Prospects
17: Epigenome Modification and Ubiquitin-Dependent Proteolysis During Pronuclear Development of the Mammalian Zygote: Animal Models to Study Pronuclear Development
17.2 Milestones of Pronuclear Development
17.3 Nuclear Envelope, Nuclear Pore Complexes, and Nuclear Lamina Changes During Pronuclear Development
17.4 Molecular Mechanism of Paternal and Maternal Pronucleus Biogenesis
17.5 Role of UPS in Pronuclear Biogenesis
17.6 Posttranslational Modifications of Pronuclear Histones
17.7 Sirtuin Family Histone Deacetylases in Gametogenesis and Development
17.8 Clinical and Technological Considerations
18: Alterations of the Epigenome Induced by the Environment in Reproduction
18.2 Epigenetic Reprogramming
18.2.1 The Epigenetic Reprogramming in Germ Lines
18.2.2 The Epigenetic Reprogramming in the Early Embryo
18.3 Environment and Epigenetic Alterations
18.4 Animal Models Used in Reproduction to Research Epigenetic Alterations Induced by the Environment
18.4.1 Viable Yellow (A) Mouse Model
18.4.2 Axin 1 Mouse (Fu) Model
18.4.3 Micronutrient Animal Models
18.4.4 The Protein-Restricted Diet Model
18.4.5 The Caloric Restriction Model
18.4.6 The Animal Model of Zinc Deficiency
18.4.7 Undernutrition Models
18.4.9 The Diabetes Mellitus Model
18.4.10 Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS)
18.5 Effects of Environment on Epigenetic Modifications in Humans
18.6 Epigenetics and Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART)
18.7 Priorities for the Future
19: Toward Development of Pluripotent Porcine Stem Cells by Road Mapping Early Embryonic Development
19.2 Current Status on the Pluripotent State in the Pig Embryo
19.3 Current Status of the Establishment of Porcine Embryonic Stem Cells (pESCs)
19.4 Current Status in Establishment of Porcine-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
19.5 Future Perspectives: Use of Global Profiling on Pluripotent Cells from Pig Embryo and Pluripotent Stem Cells
19.6 Discussion and Conclusions
20: Applications of Metabolomics in Reproductive Biology
20.2 Metabolomics and Reproductive Biology
20.3 Metabolomics Studies in Large Animals as Models for Humans
20.4 Conclusions and Future Prospects
21: Cryopreservation of Mammalian Oocytes
21.1 Principles of Cryopreservation
21.1.1 Water and Cell Cryopreservation
21.2 Cryopreservation of Mammalian Oocytes
21.2.3 Cryopreservation Methods
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Animal Models and Human Reproduction
：Cell and Molecular Approaches with Reference to Human Reproduction
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