Chapter
Chapter 1 Overview: The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Nonionizing Radiation
1.1 What Is Nonionizing Radiation (NIR)?
1.3 How Dangerous is NIR?
1.4 Overview Summary of NIR Health Effects Evaluation: Status
Part I Hazard Identification and Assessment: What are the Dangers and How are the Sources Dangerous?
Chapter 2 Hazard Identification: Laboratory Investigation
2.2 The Scientific Method
2.3 Human Volunteer Experiments
2.4 Whole Organism Experiments
2.5 Studies on Isolated Cells, Organs, or Subcellular Organelles
2.6 Sources of Artifact and Importance of Independent Replication and Quality Control
2.7 Difference Between “Effects” and “Harmful Effects”: Extrapolation to Human Health Outcomes
2.8 Role of Mathematical Modeling and Mechanism Studies
Appendix: Statistical Concepts
A.2 Standard Error of the Mean
A.3 When Is a Difference Significant?
Chapter 3 Hazard Identification: Epidemiological Studies and Their Interpretation
3.3 Incidence and Prevalence
3.4 Evidence for Causation
3.5 Types of Epidemiological Study
3.6 Time Dimensions – Prospective, Retrospective, or Cross Sectional
3.7 Some Other Epidemiological Studies
3.8 The Results of Epidemiological Studies: Relative Risk, Confidence Limits, and P-Values
3.9 Assessing Causality: Identifying Noncausal Explanations
Part II Ultraviolet (UV) Light
Chapter 4 UVR and Short-Term Hazards to the Skin and Eyes
4.2 Sources of UVR: Natural and Artificial
4.3 Short-Term Hazards to Skin and Eyes
4.4 UVR Interaction with Biomolecules
4.5 Eye Transmission and Effects
Chapter 5 Ultraviolet: Long-Term Risks and Benefits
5.2 Benefits: Vitamin D Synthesis
5.3 Reduction in Sun Exposure
5.4 Control of Artificial Tanning
Chapter 6 UV Guidelines and Protection Policies
6.1 ICNIRP Guidelines and National Standards
6.2 General Population versus Occupational Exposures
6.3 Occupational Exposures to UVR
6.4 Measured Occupational Exposures to UVR
Chapter 7 UV Measurements
7.1 Radiometry and Spectroradiometry
7.3 Solar UVR Broadband Measurements
7.4 Solar UVR Spectral Measurements
7.7 Biological Dosimeters
Part III Visible and Infrared (IR) Light
Chapter 8 Laser and Visible Radiation Hazards to the Eye and Skin
8.1 Intense Sources of Optical Radiation
8.2 Basic Principles of a Laser
8.3 Intense Nonlaser Sources of Visible Light
8.5 Laser Radiation Safety
Chapter 9 Infrared Radiation and Biological Hazards
9.3 Absorption of Infrared Radiation
9.4 Interaction of Infrared Radiation with the Human Body
9.5 Traditional Sources of Infrared Radiation
9.6 Personal Protective Equipment
9.7 Recent and Emerging Infrared Technologies, Including Lasers, Laser Diodes, LEDs, and Terahertz Devices
9.8 Infrared Exposure Standards and Guidelines
Chapter 10 Laser and Optical Radiation Guidelines
10.2 Guidelines and Standards for Lasers
Chapter 11 Laser Measurements
11.2 Measurement Parameters for Lasers
11.4 Beam Diameter and Beam Divergence
11.5 Divergence Measurements
Part IV Radiofrequency (RF) and Microwave Radiation
Chapter 12 Thermal Effects of Microwave and Radiofrequency Radiation
12.2 Thermal Effects Relevant to Health and Safety
12.3 Mechanisms for Thermal Effects of RF Energy
12.4 Modeling Thermal Response of Humans to RF Energy Exposure
Chapter 13 RF Guidelines and Standards
13.2 How Do the Standards-Setting Bodies Operate?
13.3 Standard or Guidance Levels
13.6 Contact Current Restrictions
13.7 Reference Levels as a Function of Frequency
13.8 Near-Field versus Far-Field
13.9 Dealing with Multiple Frequencies
13.11 Specific Issues Regarding Risk Management
13.13 The Place of Epidemiological and Low-Level Effects Research in Standard Setting
Chapter 14 Assessing RF Exposure: Fields, Currents, and SAR
14.2 RF Sources and the Environment
14.3 Planning an Exposure Assessment
14.4 Quantities and Units
14.5 Broadband Field Strength Measurements
14.6 Frequency-Selective Field Strength Measurements
14.7 Induced and Contact Current Measurements
14.9 Computation of Fields, Currents, and SARs
14.10 Calibration of Instruments
14.11 Validation of Computational Tools and Simulations
14.12 Uncertainty in Measurements and Computations
14.13 Compliance with Limits
Chapter 15 Epidemiological Studies of Low-Intensity Radiofrequency Fields and Diseases in Humans
15.2 Mobile Phone Use and Brain Cancer
15.3 Case–Control Studies
15.5 Time Trends in Brain Tumors
15.7 Mobile Phone Base Stations
15.8 Radio and Other Transmitters
15.9 Occupational Studies
Chapter 16 Possible Low-Level Radiofrequency Effects
16.2 Where Is the Information?
16.3 Thermal and Nonthermal Effects: Formal Definitions
16.4 RF Bioeffects Research: General
16.5 Summary of In Vitro Work
16.6 Summary of In Vivo Work
16.7 In Vivo Studies: Other Effects
16.8 Animal Whole of Life Studies
16.9 Human Volunteer Studies
16.10 Other Issues Relating to Mechanism of Interaction of RF with Biological Systems
16.11 Modeling and Dosimetry
16.12 Unanswered Questions
16.13 What More Needs to Be Done?
Part V Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields
Chapter 17 Electric and Magnetic Fields and Induced Current Hazard
17.2 What Other Hazards Need We Consider?
17.3 The Initiation of an Action Potential
17.4 Endogenous and Exogenous Currents
17.5 Sensation Thresholds
17.6 Effects of Contact Currents
17.7 Inducing a Current in Tissue by an External Magnetic Field
17.8 Effects of External Electric Fields
17.9 Sources of EMFs: Electricity Transmission and Distribution Systems
17.10 Home Appliances and Industrial or Commercial Sources of EMF
17.11 Transportation Systems
17.13 Effect on Pacemakers and Other Implantable or Body-worn Electronic Medical Devices
17.14 Electro and Magnetobiology
17.15 Glossary and Further Definitions
Chapter 18 Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Guidelines
18.2 Standard or Guidance Levels?
18.3 Guidelines/Standards: History
18.4 Basic Restrictions and Reference (or Maximum Permitted Exposure) Levels
18.6 MPEs/RLs for Electric (E) Fields
18.7 MPEs/RLs for Magnetic (B) Fields
18.10 Time and Space Averaging
18.11 Multiple Frequencies
18.12 The Place of Epidemiological Results in ELF Standard-Setting
Chapter 19 Instrumentation and Measurement of ELF Electric and Magnetic Fields
19.2 ELF Instrumentation – General
19.3 Electric Field Instrumentation
19.4 Magnetic Field Instrumentation
19.5 Measurement and Exposure Assessment Considerations
Chapter 20 Epidemiological Studies of Low-Intensity ELF Fields and Diseases in Humans
20.1 Leukemia in Children
20.3 Occupational Studies
20.4 Neurological Diseases
20.5 Reproductive Outcomes
Chapter 21 Possible Low-Level Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Field Effects?
21.1 Exposure to ELF Fields
21.2 Some “Landmark Studies”?
21.4 Why Is Evidence Regarded as “Inconclusive”?
21.5 Dealing with Scientific Uncertainty in a Prudent Manner
Part VI Static Electric and Magnetic Fields
Chapter 22 Static Electric and Magnetic Field Hazards
22.2 Interaction Mechanisms
22.5 Interference with Implanted Medical Devices
Chapter 23 Static Electric and Magnetic Field Guidelines
23.2 Static Electric Fields
23.3 Static Magnetic Fields
23.4 Magnetic Resonance Imaging Guidelines
Part VII Dealing with Hazard Perception
Chapter 24 Perceived Hypersensitivity: Anecdotal Versus Objective Evidence
24.2 Anecdotal Evidence of Sensitivity to Electromagnetic Fields
24.3 Objective Evidence of Sensitivity to Electromagnetic Fields
24.4 Treatment and Intervention Strategies
24.5 Important Considerations for Treatment
Chapter 25 Prudent Avoidance*
25.2 Public Policy Considerations
25.3 Prudent Avoidance Principles
25.4 Prudent Avoidance – Transmission
25.5. Prudent Avoidance – Distribution
Chapter 26 Radiofrequency Fields and the Precautionary Principle
26.2 What Is the Precautionary Principle?
26.3 Precautionary Approaches to Regulating Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Fields
26.4 Difficulties with Precautionary Approaches to Radiofrequency Field Regulation
Chapter 27 How to Handle Precaution
27.2 A Precautionary Approach to EMF
27.3 Test Case: Extremely Low Frequency Magnetic Fields
Part VIII NIR Injury Prevention and Medical Assessment
Chapter 28 Medical Aspects of Overexposures to Nonionizing Radiation
28.1 General Principles of Managing Overexposures
28.2 Considerations of Components of the NIR Spectrum
Chapter 29 Preventive Surveillance Programs
29.2 UV Protection – Influencing Sun Protection Behaviors across the Populations (Sue Heward)
29.3 Preventative Surveillance Programs – Laser Safety (David Urban)
29.4 RF Training Programs (Ray McKenzie)
Part IX Legal and Community Issues
Chapter 30 Public Consultation and Dissemination of Information. Risk Perception. Public Involvement in Decision-Making Regarding Placement of Broadcast Antennas and Power Transmission Lines
30.2 Why Communicate on NIR?
30.8 Evaluation Is Essential
Chapter 31 Mitigating Nonionizing Radiation Risks
31.2 Mitigation Strategies – Lasers and Other Optical Sources (David Urban)
31.3 Strategies for Radiofrequency Field Exposure Reduction (Michael Bangay)
31.4 Mitigation Strategies for ELF Electric and Magnetic Fields (Thanh Dovan)
Chapter 32 Some of the Controversies Regarding NIR
32.1 Why Should NIR Attract Such Controversy?
32.2 Extremely Low Frequency
32.6 What We Can Learn from These Controversies
Chapter 33 Summary and Prospects
33.1 Comparison of Nonionizing Radiation with Ionizing Radiation
33.2 Could the Same Protection Framework Be Applied to Both Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation?
33.3 Might We Expect a Definitive Answer Soon?
33.4 Comparative Costs and Benefits of Mitigation Measures
33.5 Concept of Acceptable Risk
33.6 Can We Live in a World without NIR Exposure?
Appendix A Answers to Tutorial Problems
Appendix B List of Suppliers of Survey Equipment
Appendix C Websites for Further Information
Non-ionizing Radiation Protection
：Summary of Research and Policy Options
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