Flavor, Satiety and Food Intake

Contents

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgements

1: Introducing Sensory and Cognitive Influences on Satiation and Satiety

1.1 Appetite Control in Context

1.2 Satiation and Satiety: A Brief Overview

1.3 Sensory Influences on Satiation and Satiety: A Brief History

1.4 New Directions

1.5 Concluding Remarks

References

2: Satiety and Liking Intertwined

2.1 Chapter Overview

2.2 Liking

2.3 Postingestive Satiety

2.4 The Five-Factor Satiety Questionnaire

2.5 The Intertwining of Liking and Satiety

2.5.1 Sensory Perceptions Affect Hunger and Fullness

2.5.2 Conditioning to Postingestional Satiety Creates Liking

2.5.3 Liking Influences Hunger and Fullness Ratings

2.6 Sensory-Specific Satiety, a Relative Change in Liking

2.6.1 History and Definition

2.6.2 Different Foods Produce Different Amounts of Sensory-Specific Satiety

2.6.3 What Determines the Extent of Sensory-Specific Satiety?

2.6.4 Sensory-Specific Satiety Crossovers

2.6.5 Can Sensory-Specific Satiety Occur to Just Odors? Appearance?

2.6.6 Potential Uses of Sensory-Specific Satiety

2.6.6.1 Can Sensory-Specific Satiety Serve As an Indicator of Long-Term Acceptability?

2.6.6.2 Can Sensory-Specific Satiety be Useful for Delineating an Assortment of Products?

2.7 Summary

References

3: The Chemical Senses and Nutrition: The Role of Taste and Smell in the Regulation of Food Intake

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Role of Taste in Food Intake

3.2.1 The Taste of Our Diet: Taste Nutrient Relationships Across the Food Supply

3.2.2 Texture, Eating Rate and Food Intake

3.2.3 The Role of Oro-Sensory Exposure to Taste in Satiation

3.2.4 Translation into the Real World

3.2.5 Remaining Questions

3.3 The Role of Odour in Food Intake

3.3.1 Odours in the Diet and Their Relationship with Nutrients in Foods

3.3.2 Retronasal Odour Stimulation and Satiation

3.3.3 Role of Orthonasal Odour Stimulation in Subjective Appetite

3.3.4 Role of Orthonasal Stimulation in Choice and Intake

3.3.5 Remaining Questions

3.4 Discussion

References

4: Sweetness and Satiety

4.1 Sweet Taste Detection

4.1.1 Sweet Taste Sensing in the Oral Cavity

4.1.2 Sweet Taste Sensing in the Gastrointestinal System

4.1.3 Sweet Taste Processing in the Brain

4.1.4 Perception of Sweet Taste

4.2 Sweetness and Satiety

4.2.1 The Effect of Low-Energy Sweeteners and Caloric Sweeteners on Energy Intake and Body Mass Index

4.2.1.1 Animal studies

4.2.1.2 Observational (prospective cohort) studies in humans

4.2.1.3 Short-term intervention studies (≤1 day)

4.2.1.4 Sustained intervention studies (>1 day)

4.2.2 The Effect of Different Types of Sugars on Energy Intake and BMI: Sucrose vs. Fructose

4.2.3 Effects of Different Types of Sugars on Energy Intake and BMI: A Role for Glycaemic Index?

4.2.4 Sweetness and Sensory-Specific Satiety

4.3 Sweetness and Reward

4.4 Summary and Considerations

References

5: Reinforcing Value of Food, Satiety, and Weight Status

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Reinforcing Value

5.3 How Is the Reinforcing Value of FoodMeasured?

5.4 Relationship between Food Reinforcement and Ad Libitum EnergyIntake

5.5 Relationship between the Reinforcing Value of Food and Obesity

5.6 Satiety and Satiation

5.7 How Does the Reinforcing Value of Food Influence Satiation and Satiety?

5.8 Can We Alter the Reinforcing Value of Food?

5.9 Implications of Reinforcing Value of Food Research

5.10 Summary and Conclusions

References

6: Cognitive and Sensory Enhanced Satiety

6.1 Introduction

6.1.1 Satiety is Multifactorial

6.1.1.1 Measuring Satiety

6.2 Cognitions and Consumption

6.2.1 Expectations of Satiation and Satiety

6.2.2 Product Labelling

6.2.3 Contextual Cues

6.2.4 Memory

6.3 Oro-Sensory Influences on Satiety

6.3.1 Palatability

6.3.2 Satiety-Relevant Sensory Cues

6.3.2.1 Texture

6.3.2.2 Taste Intensity

6.3.2.3 Umami

6.4 Case Study: Optimising Beverages For Satiety

6.5 Conclusions

References

7: Umami and the Control of Appetite

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Umami Taste Perception

7.3 Where in the Diet Does Glutamate Occur?

7.4 Umami, Palatability and the Stimulation of Appetite

7.4.1 Umami As a Flavour Enhancer

7.4.2 The Appetizing Effect of Umami

7.4.3 Enhanced Flavour Liking Conditioned by MSG

7.4.4 Top-Down Influences on Umami Taste

7.4.5 Applications of the Appetizing Effects of Umami Taste

7.4.6 Does Enhancement of Appetite by MSG Lead to Obesity?

7.5 Umami, Satiation and Satiety

7.5.1 Regulation of Protein Intake

7.5.2 Protein-Induced Satiety

7.5.3 Sensory Influences on Protein-Induced Satiety

7.5.4 A Role for Umami in Protein-Based Satiety?

7.5.4.1 Glutamate and Satiety in Human Infants

7.5.4.2 Umami-Enhanced Satiety: Human Experimental Studies

7.5.5 Effects of Changes in Protein Status on Expression of Liking for Protein and Umami Taste

7.6 The Uniqueness of Umami: a Biphasic Impact on Appetite

7.7 Summary

References

8: Colour, Flavour and Haptic Influences on Satiety

8.1 Introduction

8.1.1 Interoceptive and Exteroceptive Cues

8.2 Colour Contributions to the Perception and Consumption of Food

8.2.1 Underlying Mechanisms

8.2.1.1 Boredom

8.2.1.2 Sensory-Specific Satiety

8.2.1.3 Sensory Habituation

8.2.2 Sensory-Specific Satiety

8.2.3 Food Colour Monotony

8.2.4 Product Variety Display

8.2.5 Interim Summary

8.3 Haptic Influences on Food Perception and Satiety

8.3.1 Food (Texture) Perception

8.3.2 Satiety and Satiation

8.3.3 Underlying Mechanisms

8.3.4 Interim Summary

8.4 Concluding Notes

References

9: Engineering satiety

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Emulsions

9.2.1 Pre-Ingestive Approaches

9.2.1.1 Oil Droplet Size

9.2.1.2 Emulsifier

9.2.1.3 Fat Content

9.2.1.4 Hydrocolloids

9.2.2 Post-Ingestive Approaches

9.2.2.1 Intra-Gastric Layering

9.2.2.2 Lipolysis

9.2.3 Next steps

9.3 Viscous, Gelling and Fermentable Polysaccharides

9.3.1 Viscous Structures

9.3.2 Gelled Networks

9.3.3 Fermentability

9.3.4 Potential Product Applications

9.4 Conclusion

References

Index

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