Chapter
2 Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites for Water and Wastewater Treatments
2.2 Synthesis of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites
2.2.2 Starch–Carbon Nanotube Composites
2.2.3 Cellulose–Carbon Nanotube Composites
2.2.4 Chitosan–Carbon Nanotubes Composites
2.3 Applications of Biodegradable Polymer–Carbon Nanotube Composites in Water and Wastewater Treatments
2.3.1 Removal of Heavy Metals
2.3.2 Removal of Organic Pollutants
3 Eco-Friendly Nanocomposites of Chitosan with Natural Extracts, Antimicrobial Agents, and Nanometals
3.2 Properties and Formation of Chitosan Oligosaccharides
3.3 Nanomaterials from Renewable Materials
3.3.1 Chitosan Combined with Biomaterials
3.3.2 Chitosan Cross-Linked with Natural Extracts
3.3.3 Chitosan Co-Polymerized with Synthetic Species
3.4 Synthesis Methods for Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites
3.5 Analytical Techniques for the Identification of the Composite Materials
3.6 Advanced Applications of Bionanomaterials Based on Chitosan
3.6.1 Antimicrobial Applications
3.6.2 Biomedical Applications
3.6.2.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Wound Dressings
3.6.2.3 Tissue Engineering
3.6.3 Food-Related Applications
3.6.4 Environmental Applications
3.6.4.2 Wastewater Treatment
3.6.4.3 Agricultural Crops
3.6.5 Applications in Heritage Preservation
4 Controllable Generation of Renewable Nanofibrils from Green Materials and Their Application in Nanocomposites
4.2 Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers
4.2.1 Experimental Section
4.2.2 Results and Discussion
4.3 Controllable Generation of CNF from Jute Fibers
4.3.1 Experimental Section
4.3.2 Results and Discussion
4.4 CNF Generation from Other Nonwood Fibers
4.4.1 Experiments Details
4.4.1 Results and Discussion
4.5 Applications in Nanocomposites
4.5.1 CNF-Reinforced Polymer Composite
4.5.2 Surface Coating as Barrier
4.5.3 Assembled into Microfiber and Film
4.6 Conclusions and Perspectives
5 Nanocellulose and Nanocellulose Composites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Potential Applications
5.3 Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.1 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.2 Aerogels Based on Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.3 Electrode Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.4 Photocatalytic Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.5 Antibacterial Materials Based on Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.6 Sustained Release Applications Based on Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.7 Sensors Based on the Nanocellulose Composites
5.3.8 Mechanical Properties
5.3.9 Biodegradation Properties
6 Poly(Lactic Acid) Biopolymer Composites and Nanocomposites for Biomedicals and Biopackaging Applications
6.9 Processing Advantages of PLA Biomaterials
6.10 PLA as Packaging Materials
6.11 Biomedical Application of PLA
6.13 Some Clinical Applications of PLA Devices
6.13.3 Bone Fixation Devices
6.13.4 Stress-Shielding Effect
6.13.5 Piezoelectric Effect
6.13.6 Screws, Pins, and Rods
6.13.8 Microspheres, Microcapsules, and Thin Coatings
6.14 PLA Packaging Applications
7 Impact of Nanotechnology on Water Treatment: Carbon Nanotube and Graphene
7.2 Threats to Water Treatment
7.3 Nanotechnology in Water Treatment
7.3.1 Nanomaterials for Water Treatment
7.3.2 Nanomaterials and Membrane Filtration
7.3.3 Metal Nanostructured Materials
7.3.4 Naturally Occurring Materials
7.3.5 Carbon Nano Compounds
7.3.5.1 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Water Purification
7.3.5.2 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalysts or Co-Catalysts
7.3.5.3 Carbon Nanotubes in Photocatalysis
7.3.5.4 Carbon Nanotube Filters as Anti-Microbial Materials
7.3.5.5 Carbon Nanotube Membranes for Seawater Desalination
7.4 Polymer Nanocomposites
7.4.1 Graphene-Based Nanomaterials for Water Treatment Membranes
7.5 Global Impact of Nanotechnology and Human Health
8 Nanomaterials in Energy Generation
8.1.1 Increasing of Surface Energy and Tension
8.1.2 Decrease of Thermal Conductivity
8.1.3 The Blue Shift Effect
8.2 Applications of Nanotechnology in Medicine and Biology
8.3.1 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell
8.3.2 Composites from Renewable Materials for Photoanode
8.3.3 Composites from Renewable Materials for Electrolyte
8.3.4 Composites from Renewable Materials for Organic Solar Cells
8.4 Visible-Light Active Photocatalyst
8.5.1 Thermal Energy Storage
8.5.2 Electrochemical Energy Storage
8.6 Biomechanical Energy Harvest and Storage Using Nanogenerator
8.7 Nanotechnology on Biogas Production
8.7.1 Impact of Metal Oxide Nanoadditives on the Biogas Production
8.8 Evaluation of Antibacterial and Antioxidant Activities Using Nanoparticles
8.8.1 Antibacterial Activity
8.8.2 Antioxidant Activity
9 Sustainable Green Nanocomposites from Bacterial Bioplastics for Food-Packaging Applications
9.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications
9.3 ZnO Nanofillers: Structure, Properties, Synthesis, and Applications
9.4 Materials and Nanocomposite Processing
9.5 Characterization of PHA-Based Nanocomposites
9.5.2 Crystalline Structure
9.5.4 Crystallization and Melting Behavior
9.5.6 Dynamic Mechanical Properties
9.5.7 Static Mechanical Properties
9.5.9 Migration Properties
9.5.10 Antibacterial Properties
9.6 Conclusions and Outlook
10 PLA Nanocomposites: A Promising Material for Future from Renewable Resources
10.2.1 Structural Formulas of Few Biopolymers
10.2.2 Polylactide Polymers
10.3.1.1 Rheological Properties
10.3.1.2 Mechanical Properties
10.4 PLA-Based Nanocomposites
10.4.1 Preparation of PLA Nanocomposites
10.4.2 Recent Research on PLA Nanocomposites
10.4.3 Application of PLA Nanocomposites
10.5.1 PLA/Layered Silicate Nanocomposite
10.5.2 PLA/Carbon Nanotubes Nanocomposites
10.5.3 PLA/Starch Nanocomposites
10.5.4 PLA/Cellulose Nanocomposites
11 Biocomposites from Renewable Resources: Preparation and Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.2 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Chitosan and its Nanocomposites
11.3 Structure, Properties, and Importance of Montmorillonite
11.4 Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.5 Preparation Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.6 Applications of Chitosan–Clay Nanocomposites
11.6.1 Food-Packaging Applications
11.6.2 Electroanalytical Applications
11.6.3 Tissue-Engineering Applications
11.6.4 Electrochemical Sensors Applications
11.6.5 Wastewater Treatment Applications
11.6.6 Drug Delivery Systems
12 Nanomaterials: An Advanced and Versatile Nanoadditive for Kraft and Paper Industries
12.1 An Overview: Paper Industries
12.1.1 Manufacturing: Paper Industries
12.1.3 Nanotechnology: Paper Industries
12.2 Nanobleaching Agents: Paper Industries
12.2.1 Nano Calcium Silicate Particle
12.3 Nanosizing Agents: Paper Industries
12.3.2 Nano Titanium Oxide/Hybrid
12.4 Nano Wet/Dry Strength Agents: Paper Industries
12.5 Nanopigment: Paper Industries
12.6 Nanoretention Agents: Paper Industries
12.7 Nanomineral Filler: Paper Industries
12.7.2 Nano Calcium Carbonate
12.8 Nano Superconductor Agents: Paper Industries
12.9 Nanodispersion Agents: Paper Industries
12.10 Certain Challenges Associated with Nanoadditives
12.11 Conclusion and Future Prospective
13 Composites and Nanocomposites Based on Polylactic Acid
13.2 Obtaining Composites and Nanocomposite Based on PLA
13.2.1 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Composites Based on PLA
13.2.2 Obtaining-Properties Aspects for Nanocomposite Based on PLA
14 Cellulose-Containing Scaffolds Fabricated by Electrospinning: Applications in Tissue Engineering and Drug Delivery
14.2 Cellulose: Structure and Major Sources
14.3 Cellulose Nanofibers Fabricated by Electrospinning
14.3.1 Electrospinning Set-Up
14.3.2 Modified Electrospinning Processes
14.3.3 Electrospinnability of Cellulose and its Derivatives
14.4 Cellulose-Containing Nanocomposite Fabricated by Electrospinning
14.4.1 Electrospun Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanocellulosic Materials
14.4.2 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Blends of Cellulose or its Derivatives with Nanoparticles
14.4.3 Electrospun Nanocomposites Based on Cellulose/Polymer Blends
14.4.4 Electrospun All-Cellulose Composites
14.5 Applications of Cellulose-Containing Electrospun Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering
14.6 Cellulose/Polymer Electrospun Scaffolds for Drug Delivery
14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
15 Biopolymer-Based Nanocomposites for Environmental Applications
15.1.1 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Origin
15.1.2 Classification of Biopolymers According to Their Structure
15.1.3 Biopolymers as Promising Eco-Friendly Materials
15.2 Biopolymers: Chemistry and Properties
15.2.4 Microbial Polyesters
15.2.4.1 Polyhydroxylalkanoates
15.3 Preparation Techniques of Polymer Nanocomposites
15.3.1 Direct Compounding
15.3.3.3 Phase Separation
15.3.3.4 Template Synthesis
15.4 Characterization of Polymer Nanocomposites
15.5 Environmental Application of Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites
15.5.1 Pollutants Removal: Catalytic and Redox Degradation
15.5.1.1 Semiconductor Nanoparticles
15.5.1.2 Zero-Valent Metals Nanoparticles
15.5.1.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles
15.5.2 Pollutants Removal: Adsorption
15.5.3 Pollutants Sensing
15.5.4 Biopolymers-Based Nanocomposites in Green Chemistry
15.6 Conclusion and Future Aspects
16 Calcium Phosphate Nanocomposites for Biomedical and Dental Applications: Recent Developments
16.3 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Coatings
16.3.4 Synthetic Polymers
16.4 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering
16.4.1 Calcium Phosphate–Chitosan Nanocomposites
16.4.2 Calcium Phosphate–Collagen Nanocomposites
16.4.3 Calcium Phosphate–Silk Fibroin Nanocomposites
16.4.4 Calcium Phosphate–Cellulose Nanocomposites
16.4.5 Calcium Phosphate–Synthetic Polymer Nanocomposites
16.5 Calcium Phosphate-Based Nanocomposite Scaffolds for Drug Delivery
17 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Characterization, and Applications
17.2 Chitosan: A Promising Biopolymer
17.2.1 Degree of Deacetylation
17.2.2 Chitosan Depolymerization
17.3 Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials
17.3.1 Synthesis of Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials
17.3.1.1 Ionic Gelation Method
17.4 Chitosan–Metal Nanocomposites
17.4.1 Chitosan–Zn Nanocomposite
17.4.2 Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite
17.4.3 Application of Cu and Zn–Chitosan–Cu Nanocomposite
17.5 Other Natural Biopolymer in Comparison with Chitosan
18 Multicarboxyl-Functionalized Nanocellulose/Nanobentonite Composite for the Effective Removal and Recovery of Uranium (VI), Thorium (IV), and Cobalt (II) from Nuclear Industry Effluents and Sea Water
18.2 Materials and Methods
18.2.2 Equipment and Methods of Characterization
18.2.3 Preparation of Adsorbent
18.2.4 Adsorption Experiments
18.2.5 Desorption Experiments
18.2.7 Determination of Functional Groups
18.2.8 Point of Zero Charge
18.3 Results and Discussion
18.3.3 Point of Zero Charge, Degree of Grafting, and –COOH Determination
18.3.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis
18.3.5 Effect of pH on Metal Ions Adsorption
18.3.6 Adsorption Kinetics
18.3.7 Adsorption Isotherm
18.3.8 Adsorption Thermodynamics
18.3.9 Reuse of the Adsorbent
18.3.10 Test of the Adsorbent with Nuclear Industry Wastewater and Sea Water
19 Biomimetic Gelatin Nanocomposite as a Scaffold for Bone Tissue Repair
19.2.1 Structure and Composition of Bone
19.2.2 Bone Tissue Development
19.2.3 Mechanical Properties of Bone
19.2.4 Limitations of Human Bone
19.3 Conventional Bone Implant Materials and Their Shortcoming
19.3.4 Ceramic Polymer Composites
19.3.5 Protein-Based Ceramic–Polymer Composites
19.4.1 Mechanical Integrity
19.4.3 Incorporation of Biocompatible Biomolecules
19.5 Gelatin as a Source of Biomimetic Material
19.6 Scaffold Fabrication Techniques
19.7 Types of Bone Scaffolds by Gelatin
19.7.1 Gelatin Scaffolds with Natural Polymers
19.7.2 Gelatin Scaffolds with Synthetic Polymers
19.7.2.1 Poly-L-lactide (PLLA)
19.7.2.2 Poly(vinyl Alcohol) (PVA)
19.7.2.3 Poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)(PLGA)
19.7.2.4 Poly-caprolactone (PCL)
19.7.3 Gelatin Scaffolds with Inorganic Particles
19.7.3.1 Hydroxyapatite (HAp)
19.7.3.2 Tricalcium Phosphate (TCP)
19.7.3.3 Bioactive Glass (BAG)
19.8 Currently Employed Gelatin–Ceramic Nanocomposites
19.9 Future Aspects of Gelatin-Based Nanocomposites
20 Natural Starches-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Microparticles/Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.2 Natural Starches and Their Use in Drug Delivery
20.3 Ionotropic Gelation of Polysaccharides
20.3.1 Ionotropic Gelation Technique
20.3.2 Counter Ions (Cross-Linkers) for Ionotropic Gelation
20.3.3 Some Common Ionic Natural Polysaccharides and Their Ionotropic Gelation
20.4 Jackfruit Seed Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.5 Jackfruit Seed Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Pectinate Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.6 Jackfruit Seed Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Gellan Gum Beads for Sustained Drug Release
20.7 Potato Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Beads/Microparticles for Sustained Drug Release
20.8 Assam Bora Rice Starch-Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Beads for Sustained Drug Release
21 Ferrogels: Smart Materials for Biomedical and Remediation Applications
21.1 Ferrogel: General Ideas
21.2 Main Properties and Characterization of Magnetic Gels
21.3 Biomedical Applications
21.3.1 Recent Advances in Biomedical Field (2014–2015)
21.3.2 Summary of Biomedical Applications
21.4 Environmental Remediation
21.4.1 Recent Advances in Remediation Field (2014–2015)
21.4.2 Summary of Environmental Remediation Applications
21.5 Conclusions and Remarks
Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials, Nanocomposites
：Advanced Applications
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