Chapter
1.1.2 Lignin and Nanolignin
1.1.3 Silica and Nanosilica
1.2 Preparation of Nanomaterials
1.2.1 Nanocellulose from Lignocellulosic Materials
1.2.1.1 Mechanical Shearing and Grinding
1.2.1.2 Steam Explosion/High-Pressure Homogenization
1.2.1.3 Chemical Methods (Acid Hydrolysis, Alkaline Treatment and Bleaching)
1.2.1.6 Functionalized Nanocellulose from Fibers
1.2.2.1 Precipitation Method
1.2.2.2 Chemical Modification
1.2.2.3 Electro Spinning Followed by Surface Modification
1.2.2.4 Freeze Drying Followed by Thermal Stabilization and Carbonization
1.2.2.5 Supercritical Antisolvent Technology
1.2.2.6 Chemomechanical Methods
1.2.2.7 Nanolignin by Self-Assembly
1.2.2.8 Lignin Nanocontainers by Miniemulsion Method
1.2.2.9 Template-Mediated Synthesis
1.2.3.1 Nanosilica Obtained from Plants
1.2.3.2 Enzymatic Crystallization of Amorphous Nanosilica
1.3 Characterization of Nanomaterials
1.3.1 Characterization of Nanocellulose
1.3.1.1 Structure and Morphology of NC
1.3.1.2 Physical Properties (Dimensions, Density, Electrical, Crystallinity, and Any Other)
1.3.1.3 Mechanical Properties
1.3.2 Characterization of Lignin Nanoparticles
1.3.2.1 Morphology of Lignin Nanoparticles
1.3.4 Characterization of Nanosilica
1.4 Applications and Market Aspects
1.4.1.1 Biomedical Applications
1.4.1.2 Dielectric Materials
1.4.1.3 In Composite Manufacturing for Various Applications
1.4.1.4 Advanced Functional Materials
1.4.3.2 Nanosilica in Nacre Composite
1.4.3.3 Encapsulation of Living Cells by Nanosilica
1.5 Concluding Remarks and Challenges Ahead
2 Hydrogels and its Nanocomposites from Renewable Resources: Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications
2.2 Hydrogels from Renewable Resources
2.3 Hydrogel Technical Features
2.4 Nanocomposite Hydrogels
2.4.1 Polymer-Clay-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
2.4.2 Poly(ethylene Oxide)–Silicate Nanocomposite Hydrogels
2.4.3 Poly(acryl Amide) and Poly(vinyl Alcohol)–Silicate-Based Nanocomposite Hydrogels
2.5 Nanocomposite Hydrogels with Natural Polymers
2.6 Classifications of Hydrogels
2.7 Applications of Hydrogels as Biomaterials
2.7.1 Hydrogels for Drug Delivery Applications
2.7.2 Hydrogels for Tissue-Engineering Scaffolds
2.7.3 Hydrogels for Contact Lens
2.7.4 Hydrogels for Cell Encapsulation
2.7.5 Artificial Muscles and Nerve Regeneration
3 Preparation of Chitin-Based Nanocomposite Materials Through Gelation with Ionic Liquid
3.2 Dissolution and Gelation of Chitin with Ionic Liquid
3.3 Fabrication of Self-Assembled Chitin Nanofibers by Regeneration from the Chitin Ion Gels
3.4 Preparation of Nanocomposite Materials from Chitin Nanofibers
4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites
4.3 Starch Structural Features
4.4 Starch-Based Bionanocomposites
4.4.1 Starch Silicate Nanocomposites
4.4.2 Starch/Chitosan Composites
4.4.3 Starch Cellulose Nanocomposites
4.4.4 Starch Nanocomposites with Other Nanofillers
4.5 Starch Nanocrystal, Nanoparticle, and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods
4.5.1 Starch Nanocrystals Preparation by Acid Hydrolysis Method
4.5.2 Starch Nanocrystal Modification Methods
4.5.2.1 Starch Nanocrystals Chemical Modification by Molecules with Low Molecular Weight
4.5.2.2 Modification of Starch Nanocrystals via Surface Grafting of Polymers
4.5.3 Starch Nanoparticle and Nanocolloid Preparation and Modification Methods
4.6 Nano Starch as Fillers in Other Nanocomposites
4.7 Biomedical Application
5 Biorenewable Nanofiber and Nanocrystal: Renewable Nanomaterials for Constructing Novel Nanocomposites
5.1 Nanocellulose-Based and Nanocellulose-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels
5.1.1 Gelling Performances of Nanocelluloses
5.1.2 Nanocelluloses-Reinforced Nanocomposite Hydrogels
5.2 Nanocellulose-Based Aerogels
5.2.1 Preparation and Properties of Nanocellulose Aerogels
5.2.2 Nanocellulose–Polymer Composite Aerogels
5.2.3 Nanocellulose–Inorganic Nanocomposite Aerogels
5.2.4 Nanocellulose–Nanocarbon Hybrid Aerogels
5.3 Nanocellulose-Based Biomimetic and Conductive Nanocomposite Films
5.3.1 Nanocellulose–Polymer Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films
5.3.2 Nanocellulose–Inorganic Biomimetic Nanocomposite Films
5.3.3 Nanocellulose–Nanocarbon Conductive Nanocomposite Films
5.4 Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal and its Nanocomposites with Unique Optical Properties
5.4.1 CNC Chiral Nematic Performances
5.4.2 CNC–Polymer Photonic Nanocomposites
5.4.3 CNC–Inorganic Photonic Nanocomposites
5.4.4 CNC-Templated Chiral Nematic Nanomaterials
5.5 Spun Fibers from Nanocelluloses
5.5.1 Spinning Performances of Nanocelluloses and Properties
5.5.2 Nanocellulose–Polymer Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers
5.5.3 Nanocellulose–Nanocarbons Spinning Nanocomposite Fibers
6 Investigation of Wear Characteristics of Dental Composite Reinforced with Rice Husk–Derived Nanosilica Filler Particles
6.2.1 Synthesis of Nanosilica Powder
6.2.2 Materials and Fabrication Details
6.2.3 Determination of Hardness
6.2.4 Determination of Flexural Strength
6.2.5 Determination of Wear
6.2.6 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope
6.3 Results and Discussion
6.3.1 Effect of Vickers Hardness on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica
6.3.2 Effect of Flexural Strength on the Dental Composite Filled with Silane-Treated Nanosilica
6.3.3 Steady-State Condition for Wear Characterization in Food Slurry and Acidic Medium
6.3.3.1 Effect of Chewing Load on Volumetric Wear Rate on Dental Composite
6.3.3.2 Effect of Profile Speed on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite
6.3.3.3 Effect of Chamber Temperature on Volumetric Wear Rate of Dental Composite
6.3.4 Wear Analysis of Experimental Results by Taguchi Method and ANOVA Analysis
6.3.4.1 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Food Slurry Using Taguchi and ANOVA
6.3.4.2 Wear Analysis of Silane-Treated Nanosilica-Filled Dental Composite in Citric Acid Using Taguchi and ANOVA
6.3.5 Surface Morphology of Worn Surfaces Under Food Slurry and Citric Acid Condition
6.3.6 Confirmation Experiment of Proposed Composites
7 Performance of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites Fabricated via Ionic Liquid Based on Halloysites and Vermiculite
7.1.2 Cellulose Structure and Properties
7.1.3 Regenerated Cellulose
7.1.4 Conventional Solvent for Cellulose
7.1.5 Dissolution of Cellulose in NMMO
7.1.6 Cellulose Dissolution in Ionic Liquid
7.1.7 Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites
7.2.2.1 The Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose via Ionic Liquid
7.2.2.2 Preparation of Regenerated Cellulose Nanocomposites via Ionic Liquids
7.2.3 Characterization of the Nanocomposites Films
7.3 Results and Discussions
7.3.1 XRD Patterns of RC Nanocomposites
7.3.2 FTIR Spectra of RC Nanocomposites
7.3.3 Mechanical Properties of RC Nanocomposites
7.3.4 Morphology Analysis of the RC Nanocomposites
7.3.4.1 Transmission Electron Micrographs Images Analysis
7.3.4.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy Images Analysis
7.3.5 Thermal Stability Analysis of RC Nanocomposites
7.3.6 Water Absorption of RC Nanocomposites
8 Preparation, Structure, Properties, and Interactions of the PVA/Cellulose Composites
8.1.1.1 Molecular Weight and the Degree of Alcoholysis
8.1.1.2 The Advantages and Disadvantages of PVA
8.1.2.1 Structure and Chemistry of Cellulose
8.1.2.2 Source of Cellulose
8.1.2.3 The Particle Types of Cellulose
8.1.2.4 Properties of Cellulose
8.1.2.5 Application of Cellulose
8.1.3 PVA/Cellulose Composites
8.1.3.1 The Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites
8.1.3.2 Application of PVA/Cellulose Composites
8.2 The Bulk and Surface Modification of Cellulose Particles
8.2.1 The Bulk Modification of Cellulose Particles
8.2.1.1 Complex Modification
8.2.1.2 Graft Polymerization
8.2.2 The Surface Modification of Cellulose
8.2.2.1 Chemical Surface Modification
8.2.2.2 Physical Surface Modification
8.3 The Methods and Technology of Preparation of the PVA/Cellulose Composites
8.4 The Relationship between Structure and Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites
8.4.1 Interpenetrating Polymer Network
8.4.2 Hydrogen-Bonding or Bond Network
8.4.3 Chemical Cross-Linked Network
8.5 The Effect of the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose on Properties of PVA/Cellulose Composites
8.5.1 Characterization Methods for the Interaction between PVA and Cellulose
8.5.1.1 Raman Spectroscopy
8.5.1.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
8.5.1.3 X-Ray Powder Diffraction
8.5.1.4 Fourier Transform Infrared
8.5.2 Interaction between PVA and Cellulose
8.5.2.1 Molecular Interactions
8.5.2.2 Covalent Interactions
8.5.2.3 Nucleation of Cellulose
8.6 Conclusions and Outlook
9 Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements
9.2 A Short Overview on Nanosized Cellulose
9.3 General Aspects on Green Composites with Cellulose Nanoreinforcements
9.4 Green Composites from Biopolyamides and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements
9.5 Green Composites from Polylactide and Cellulose Nanoreinforcements
9.5.2.3 Other Processing Techniques
9.5.3 Mechanical, Thermal, and Morphological Properties
9.6 Microbial Polyesters Nanocellulose Composites
9.6.2 General Overview on PHAs–Nanocellulose Composites
9.6.3 Processing Strategies for the Preparation of PHAs–Cellulose Nanocomposites
9.6.4 Morphological, Thermal, and Mechanical Characteristics of PHAs/Nanocellulose
9.6.5 Biodegradability and Biocompatibility
10 Biomass Composites from Bamboo-Based Micro/Nanofibers
10.2 Bamboo Microfiber and Microcomposites
10.2.1 Bamboo Fibrovascular Bundle Structure
10.2.2 Preparation Methods of Short Bamboo Microfiber
10.2.3 Preparation of sBµF with Super-Heated Steam
10.2.3.2 Characterization Methods of sBµF
10.2.3.3 Changes in Surface Morphology of SHS-Treated Bamboo
10.2.3.4 Changes in Chemical and Physical Properties of SHS-Treated Bamboo
10.2.3.5 Classification of sBµF
10.2.4 Preparation of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites
10.2.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Properties of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites
10.2.4.2 Melt Processability of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites
10.2.4.3 Electrical Properties of sBµF/Plastic Microcomposites
10.3 Bamboo Lignocellulosic Nanofiber and Nanocomposite
10.3.1 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Cellulose
10.3.2 Nanofibrillation Technologies of Lignocellulose
10.3.3 Reactive Processing for Nanofibrillation
10.3.4 Changes in Cellulose Crystalline Structure after Nanofibrillation
10.3.5 Preparation of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites
10.3.6 Properties of BLCNF/Plastic Nanocomposites
11 Synthesis and Medicinal Properties of Polycarbonates and Resins from Renewable Sources
11.2.1 Chemical Synthesis of Polycarbonates
11.2.2 Synthesis of Polycarbonate from Eugenol
11.2.3 Synthesis of Renewable Bisphenols from 2,3-Pentanedione
11.2.4 Synthesis of Mesoporous PC–SiO2
11.2.5 Synthesis of Fluorinated Epoxy-Terminated Bisphenol A Polycarbonate (FBPA-PC EP)
11.2.6 Synthesis of Eugenol-Based Epoxy Resin (DEU-EP)
11.3 Polycarbonates from Renewable Resources
11.3.1 Ethylene from Biomass
11.3.2 Synthesis of Dianols via Microwave Degradation
11.3.3 Glycerol Carbonates from Recyclable Catalyst
11.3.4 Alternative to Phosgene for Aromatic Polycarbonate and Isocyanate Syntheses
11.3.5 Liquid-Phase Synthesis of Polycarbonate
11.4 Medicinal Properties
11.4.1 Polycarbonates in Drug Delivery
11.4.2 Polycarbonates in Gene Transformation
11.4.3 Cytotoxicity Test of Polycarbonates
11.4.4 Polycarbonates in Autoimmunity
11.4.5 Activation of Hyperprolactinemia and Immunostimulatory Response by Polycarbonates
12 Nanostructured Polymer Composites with Modified Carbon Nanotubes
12.1.1 Polymer Materials and Their Application
12.1.2 Carbon Nanotubes Application and Their Main Properties
12.2 Experimental Methods
12.2.1 Investigation of the CNTs Synthesis
12.2.3 Composites Fabrication
12.2.4 Testing Procedures
12.3 Results and Discussion
12.3.2 Influence of Fluorination on the CNTs Specific Surface
12.3.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Study
12.3.4 TGA of Virgin and Fluorinated CNTs
12.3.5 SEM Data of Composites Fracture
12.3.6 TGA and DSC of Composites
12.3.7 Mechanical Properties of Composites
12.3.7.1 Tensile Strength
12.3.7.2 Flexural Strength
13 Organic–Inorganic Nanocomposites Derived from Polysaccharides: Challenges and Opportunities
13.2.2 Inorganic Nanofillers
13.3 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Derived Nanocomposites
13.3.1 Surface Modification
13.3.2 Addition of Components
13.3.3 In Situ Preparation of Nanoparticles via Precursors
13.4.2 Conventional Processing Methods to Prepare Inorganic–Polysaccharide Nanocomposites
13.4.3 Emerging Methods to Prepare Inorganic–Polysaccharide Nanocomposites
13.5 Trends and Perspectives
14 Natural Polymer-Based Nanocomposites: A Greener Approach for the Future
14.2 Wood Polymer Nanocomposite
14.3 Basic Components of Wood Polymer Nanocomposite
14.4 Natural Polymer/Raw Material Used in Preparation of WPNC
14.4.4.1 Chemical Modification of Vegetable Oil
14.7 Modification of Natural Polymers
14.7.1 Grafting of Starch
14.7.2 Modification of Starch by Other Methods
14.7.4 Nano-Reinforcing Agents
14.7.4.2 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles
14.7.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes
14.8 Properties of Natural Polymer-Based Composites
14.8.1 Mechanical Properties
14.8.2 Thermal Properties
14.8.3 Water Uptake and Dimensional Stability
14.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
15 Cellulose Whisker-Based Green Polymer Composites
15.1 Cellulose: Discovery, Sources, and Microstructure
15.1.1 Sources of Cellulose
15.1.2 Microstructure of Cellulose
15.2.2 Mechanical Processes
15.2.3 TEMPO-Mediated Oxidation
15.2.4 Steam Explosion Method
15.2.5 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
15.2.6 Hydrolysis with Gaseous Acid
15.2.7 Treatment with Ionic Liquid
15.3.1 Polymer Composite Fabrication Techniques
15.3.1.1 Casting Evaporation Technique
15.3.1.3 Compression Molding
15.3.1.4 Injection Molding
15.3.2 Cellulose Whisker Composites: Literature-Based Discussion
15.3.2.1 Latex-Based Composites
15.3.2.2 Polar Polymer-Based Composites
15.3.2.3 Nonpolar Polymer-Based Composites
15.4 Applications of Cellulose Whisker Composites
15.4.2 Automotive and Toys
15.4.4 Biomedical Applications
16 Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites Reinforced with Different Additives
16.2.1 Classification of Biopolymers
16.3.1 PLA–Clay Nanocomposites
16.3.2 PLA–Carbonaceous Nanocomposites
16.3.3 PLA-Bio Filler Composites
16.3.4 PLA–Silica Nanocomposites
17 Nanocrystalline Cellulose: Green, Multifunctional and Sustainable Nanomaterials
17.1 Introduction: Natural Based Products
17.2.1 Nanocellulose: Properties
17.2.1.1 Nanocellulose: Mechanical Properties
17.2.1.2 Nanocellulose: Physical Properties
17.2.1.3 Nanocellulose: Surface Chemistry Properties
17.2.2 Nanocellulose: Synthesis Process
17.2.2.1 Conventional Acid Hydrolysis Process
17.2.3 Nanocellulose: Limitations
17.2.3.1 Single Particles Dispersion
17.2.3.2 Barrier Properties
17.2.3.3 Permeability Properties
17.3 Nanocellulose: Chemical Functionalization
17.3.1 Organic Compounds Functionalization
17.3.1.1 Molecular Functionalization
17.3.1.2 Macromolecular Functionalization
17.3.2 Nanocellulose: Inorganic Compounds Functionalization
17.3.2.1 Nanocellulose-Titanium Oxide Functionalization
17.3.2.2 Nanocellulose-Fluorine Functionalization
17.3.2.3 Nanocellulose-Gold Functionalization
17.3.2.4 Nanocellulose-Silver Functionalization
17.3.2.5 Nanocellulose-Pd Functionalization
17.3.2.6 Nanocellulose-CdS Functionalization
17.4 Applications of Functionalized Nanocellulose
17.4.1 Wastewater Treatment
17.4.2 Biomedical Applications
17.4.3 Biosensor and Bioimaging
18 Halloysite-Based Bionanocomposites
18.2 Biodegradable Polymers
18.3 Natural Inorganic Filler: Halloysite Nanotubes
18.3.1 Functionalization of HNTs
18.3.1.1 Functionalization of External Surface
18.3.1.2 Functionalization of the Lumen
18.3.2 Composites Structured with Halloysite
18.4.1 HNT-Biopolymer Nanocomposite Formation
18.4.2 Properties of HNTs-Biopolymer Nanocomposites
18.4.2.1 Bionanocomposites Surface Morphology
18.4.2.2 Bionanocomposites Mechanical and Thermal Response
18.5 Applications of HNT/Polysaccharide Nanocomposites
19 Nanostructurated Composites Based on Biodegradable Polymers and Silver Nanoparticles
19.2 Silver Nanoparticles
19.3 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles
19.4 Silver Nanoparticle Composites
19.4.1 In situ and ex situ Strategies for AgNPs-Based Composites with Polymer Matrix
19.4.2 Other AgNPs Composites
19.5 Applications of Silver Nanoparticles Composites
19.5.1 Active Substance Delivery Composites
19.5.2 Antimicrobial Composites
19.6 Conclusions and Future Prospectives
20 Starch-Based Biomaterials and Nanocomposites
20.2 Starch: Structure and Characteristics
20.3 Applicability of Starch in Food Industry
20.3.1 Starch Biomaterials: Films, Coatings, and Blends
20.3.2 Reinforced Materials
20.3.3 Starch Nanoparticles
21 Green Nanocomposites-Based on PLA and Natural Organic Fillers
21.2 Poly(lactic acid) (PLA)
21.3 Natural Organic Nanofillers
21.3.1.1 Main Derivatization Methods Used to Increase Cellulose Affinity to PLA
21.4 Bionanocomposites Based on PLA
21.4.1 PLA/cellulose Nanocomposites
21.4.2 PLA/chitin Nanocomposites
21.4.3 PLA/starch Nanocomposites
22 Chitin and Chitosan-Based (NANO) Composites
22.2 Chitin and Chitosan Properties and Processing
22.3 Preparation and Characterization of Ct and Cs Composites: An Overview
22.4 Ct- and Cs-Metal Composites
22.5 Ct and Cs-Inorganic Composites
22.5.4 Environmental Remediation
22.6 Composites Based on Ct and Cs Whiskers
22.7 Overview, Perspectives, and Conclusion
Handbook of Composites from Renewable Materials, Nanocomposites
：Science and Fundamentals
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