Chapter
Chapter 1. Introduction and Rationale
Contemporary Psychological Testing
Contemporary Psychotherapy Research and Practice
The Implications of Research Stuckness for Clinical Practice
Chapter 2. A History of Traits
The Desire to Be Scientific
Biology and Individual Differences
The Desire to Be Relevant
The Need for Classification
The Consequences of the Adoption of a Trait-Based Measurement Paradigm
Loss of Experimental Methods Inhibits Recognition of Method Variance
The Gain of Traits and Loss of Situations
Handling Error with Classical Test Theory
Statistics Related to Measurement
Assessment as a Complement to Measurement
Deemphasizing Measurement Theory
The Wisdom and Tyranny of Tradition
The Success and Failure of the Market
Chapter 3. Reliability, Validity, and Systematic Errors
Thinking about Reliability and Validity
Constructs, Theories, and Valid Measurement
Multitrait–Multimethod Matrices: Investigating the Effects of Method Variance on Validity
Criteria for Construct Validity
Problems with Campbell and Fiske’s Approach
The Factor Analytic Approach to Construct Validity
History of Self-Report and Interview Errors
Interviews and Observational Methods
Systematic Errors Associated with Self-Reports
Dissimulation and Malingering
Systematic Errors Associated with Ratings by Others
Leniency and Criticalness Errors
Hypothesis Confirmation Errors
Item Comprehension Problems
Affective and Motivational Influences
Negative Emotional States
Environmental and Cultural Influences
Chapter 4. States, Traits, and Validity
The Controversy of Mischel and Peterson: The Benefits of Conflict
The Rejection of Traits: Behavioral Assessment
Reinforcing the Trait Argument
Person–Environment Interactions
Aptitude-by-Treatment Interactions
Moderators of Cross-Situational Consistency
Chapter 5. Context Effects and Validity
Understanding Inconsistency: Clues from Psychophysics Measurement
The Limitations of Psychophysical Measurement
Conclusions and Implications from Psychophysical Research
Improving the Principles of Construct Explication
Shared Contexts and Method Variance
The Context of Positive and Negative Item Wording
The Context of Item-Instruction Presentation
The Context of Response Format
Context and Test Instructions
Shared Contexts and Systematic Errors
Shared Contexts and Social Roles
Recommendations Related to Test Purpose
Recommendations Related to Test Content
Recommendations Related to Test Contexts
Provide Testing Contexts That Help Test Takers Remember Better
Chapter 6. Nomothetic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing Outcomes
Examples of Nomothetic Measures
Beck Depression Inventory
State–Trait Anxiety Inventory
Global Assessment of Functioning
Reliability of Nomothetic Measures
Validity of Nomothetic Measures
Using Outcome Data for Clinical Feedback
Use Measures with a Strong Theoretical Basis
Creating Change-Sensitive Measures
Psychometric Properties of Aggregate Scales
Using Change-Sensitive Tests in Program Evaluations
An Evidence-Based Approach to Supervision
Chapter 7. Idiographic Approaches to Measuring Change and Influencing Outcomes
Reliability of Idiographic Measures
Validity of Idiographic Measures
Self- and Other Monitoring
The Use of Natural Language
Pennebaker’s Word Use Approach
Idiographically Based Feedback Procedures
Begin with the Case Conceptualization
Collect as Much Data as Possible
Consider Progress Notes for Process and Outcome Data
Chapter 8. Summary, Integration, and Future Directions
Initial Findings and Future Research
Nomothetic Outcome Measures
Idiographic Outcome Measures
Innovative Research Methods
Measuring Change in Counseling and Psychotherapy
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