Chapter
1.5 Nanocellulose in Tablet Formulations
1.8 Nanocellulose in Transdermal Drug Delivery
Chapter 2 Bacterial Cellulose and Polyester Hydrogel Matrices in Biotechnology and Biomedicine: Current Status and Future Prospects
2.2 Chemical Structure of Cellulose
2.5 Chemical Structure of BC
2.7 Biosynthesis of Bacterial Cellulose
2.8.1.1 In Vitro Biocompatibility
2.8.1.2 In Vivo Biocompatibility
2.8.3 Mechanical Properties
2.10.2 Antibacterial/Antimicrobial Studies
2.10.5 Cardiovascular Implant
2.10.6 Cartilage Meniscus Implant
2.10.7 Bone Tissue Implant
2.10.8 Other Biomedical Applications
2.13 Chemical Structure of Hydrogels
2.15 Properties of Hydrogels
2.15.1 Swelling Properties
2.16 Historical Background of Polyester Hydrogels
2.17 Recent Developments of Polyester Hydrogels
2.18 Applications of Polyester Hydrogels
2.18.2 Antibacterial/Antimicrobial Studies
2.18.5 Tissue Engineering
Chapter 3 Bacterial Nanocellulose Applications for Tissue Engineering
3.3 Nanocellulose and Its Types
3.3.1 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
3.3.2 Cellulose Nanofibrils (CNFs)
3.3.3 Bacterial Cellulose (BC)
3.4 Isolation and Preparation of Bacterial Cellulose
3.5 BC Properties for Tissue Engineering Applications
3.5.1 Mechanical Properties of BC
3.5.2 Surface Biochemistry Properties
3.5.3 Biological Properties
3.5.3.2 Biodegradability In Vivo
3.6 Tissue Engineering Applications
3.7 Conclusion and Future Research
Chapter 4 Cellulose-Based Nanohydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications
4.2 Preparation of Hydrogels/Cellulosic Hydrogels
4.3 Characterization of Hydrogels/Cellulosic Hydrogels
4.3.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy of Hydrogels/Cellulosic Hydrogels
4.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy of Hydrogels/Cellulosic Hydrogels
4.3.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of Hydrogels
4.3.4 X‐ray Diffraction (XRD) of Hydrogels
4.3.5 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) of Hydrogels
4.4 Properties of Hydrogels
4.4.1 Swelling Properties of Hydrogels
4.4.2 Thermal Properties of Hydrogels
4.4.3 Rheological Properties of Hydrogels
4.4.4 Mechanical Properties of Hydrogels
4.5 Cellulose-Based Nanohydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications
Chapter 5 Chitosan-Mediated Layer-by-Layer Assembling Approach for the Fabrication of Biomedical Probes and Advancement of Nanomedicine
5.2 Chitosan for Biofabrication
5.3 Derivatization of Chitosan
5.3.1 Derivatization by Direct Chemical Modification
5.3.2 Derivatization by Complex Formation
5.4 Chitosan-Mediated Biofabrication: Different Shapes and LBL Assembly
5.5 Chitosan-Mediated Assembly of Biomedical Probes and Devices
5.5.3 Tissue Engineering Appliances
5.6 Factors Influencing the Characteristics of Chitosan toward Biomedical Applications
5.6.1 Degree of Deacetylation (DD)
5.6.2 Degree of Quaternization (DQ)
5.6.3 Length and Type of Alkyl Chain
5.6.6 Molecular Weight (MW)
5.7 Summary and Conclusion
Chapter 6 Hydrogels Based on Nanocellulose and Chitosan: Preparation, Characterization, and Properties
6.2.1.1 Starch Gel by the Chemical Cross‐linking Technique
6.2.1.2 Alginate Hydrogel by Ionic Interaction Technique
6.2.1.3 κ‐Carrageenan Hydrogel by Heating/Cooling Technique
6.2.1.4 Cellulose Hydrogel by the Hydrogen‐Bonding Technique
6.2.2.1 Ambient Pressure Drying
6.2.2.3 Supercritical Drying
6.3 Chitosan and Functionalized Chitosan Hydrogels
6.3.1 Chitosan Biopolymer
6.3.2 Chemical and Physical Cross‐linked Chitosan Hydrogel
6.3.2.1.1 Ionically Cross-linked Chitosan Hydrogel
6.3.2.1.2 Polyelectrolyte Complexed Chitosan Hydrogels
6.3.3 Chitosan Hybrid Aerogels
6.4 Biopolymeric Aerogels in Biomedical Applications
Chapter 7 Cellulose Nanocrystals and PEO/PET Hydrogel Material in Biotechnology and Biomedicine: Current Status and Future Prospects
7.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals
7.2.2 Cellulose Nanocrystals (CNCs)
7.2.3.1 Mechanical Properties
7.2.3.2 Surface Chemistry
7.2.3.4 In vivo Biodegradability
7.2.4 CNC in Biotechnology and Biomedicine
7.2.4.1.1 Tissue Engineering
7.2.4.1.2 Enzyme or Protein Immobilization and Recognition
7.2.4.2.1 Drug-Loaded System
7.2.4.2.2 Medical Implants
7.2.4.2.3 Cancer Targeting
7.2.4.2.4 Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
7.3 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO)/Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Hydrogel
7.3.3 Polyethylene Oxide (PEO)/Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)
7.3.4 PEO/PET Hydrogel in Biotechnology and Biomedicine
7.3.4.1.1 Tissue Engineering
7.3.4.1.2 Medical Devices and Biosensors
7.3.4.2.2 Medical Implants
7.3.4.2.3 Wound Dressings
Chapter 8 Conducting Polymer Hydrogels: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications for Biosensors
8.2 Synthesis and Processing of CPHs
8.2.1 Conventional Synthetic Methods for CPHs
8.2.2 Recently Developed Preparation Routes for CPHs
8.3 CPHs for Electrochemical Biosensors
8.3.1 Conducting Polymer‐Based Biosensors
8.3.2 Hydrogel‐Based Biosensors
8.3.3 Ionically Cross‐linked Conducting Polymer Hydrogels and Their Applications in Biosensors
8.3.4 Doping Acid Cross‐Linking as a Novel Method to Fabricate Conducting Polymer Hydrogels and Their Application in Biosensors
Chapter 9 Nanocellulose and Nanogels as Modern Drug Delivery Systems
9.2 Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems
9.3.1 Nanocellulose Structure, Preparation, and Properties
9.3.2 Nanocellulose as Drug Delivery Carrier
9.3.2.1 Nanocellulose Drug Formulations for Topical Administration
9.3.2.1.1 Topical Application of Nanocomposites with Local Effect
9.3.2.1.2 Nanocellulose in Transdermal Drug Delivery Systems
9.3.2.2 Nanocellulose Formulations for Internal (Into‐the‐Body) Administration
9.3.2.2.1 Nanocellulose in Tablet Compression and Coating
9.3.2.2.2 Nanocellulose in Implants for Local Therapy
9.3.2.2.3 Biocompatibility and Toxicology
9.4.2.2 Biocompatibility and Biodegradability
9.4.3 Stimuli‐Responsive Nanogels
9.4.6 Easy Synthesis of Nanogels
9.4.7 Nanogel Applications in Drug Delivery
9.4.7.1 Nanogel Delivery Systems for Cancer Therapy
9.4.7.1.1 Nanogels Carriers of More Than a Single Drug
9.4.7.2 Nanogels for Drug Delivery across Biological Barriers
9.4.7.3 Nanogels in Vaccine Delivery
9.4.7.4 Nanogels in Anti‐inflammatory Drug Delivery
9.4.7.5 Nanogels in Treatment of Autoimmune Diseases
9.5 Conclusions and Outlook
Chapter 10 Recent Advances on Inhibitors of Apoptosis Proteins (IAP) Particularly with Reference to Patents
10.1.1 Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins
10.1.3 Mechanism of Action and Development of Smac Mimetics
10.1.3.1 Prudence Section
10.2.1 Fused Pyrrolidine as IAP Inhibitors
10.2.2 Fused Pyrazinone Derivatives
10.2.3 Indoles and Azaindoles
10.3 Other Heterocyclics as IAPs
10.3.1 Diazepine and Diazocine Derivatives as IAP Antagonists
10.3.2 Triazole‐Containing Macrocycles as IAPs
10.3.3 Isoquinoline‐Based IAP Antagonists
10.3.4 Dimeric and Pseudodimeric Peptidomimetics as IAPs
10.3.5 Pyrrolidine‐Containing IAP Antagonists
10.3.6 Miscellaneous Structures as IAPs
10.4 Conclusion and Perspectives
Chapter 11 Nanohydrogels: History, Development, and Applications in Drug Delivery
11.2.1 First‐Generation Hydrogels
11.2.2 Second‐Generation Hydrogels
11.2.2.1 pH‐Sensitive Hydrogels
11.2.2.2 Temperature‐Responsive Hydrogels
11.2.3 Third‐Generation Hydrogels
11.3 Classification of Hydrogels Based on the Type of Cross-Link Junctions
11.3.1 Physical Network‐Based Hydrogels
11.3.2 Chemical Network‐Based Hydrogels
11.3.3 Hydrogels Based on Ionic Interaction
11.3.4 Enzyme‐Based Cross‐Linking Hydrogels
11.3.5 Photosensitive Functional Group‐Based Cross‐Linked Hydrogels
11.4 Classification of Hydrogels Based on Properties
11.5 Classification of Interpenetrating Network Hydrogels
11.5.1 Homopolymeric Hydrogels
11.5.2 Copolymeric Hydrogel
11.5.3 Semi‐interpenetrating Hydrogels
11.5.4 Interpenetrating Hydrogels
11.6 Classification Based on Source
11.7 Properties of Hydrogels
11.7.1 Swelling Properties
11.7.2 Elasticity of Hydrogels
11.7.3 Porosity and Permeation of Hydrogels
11.7.4 Mechanical Properties of Hydrogels
11.7.5 Biocompatibility of Hydrogels
11.7.6 Inhomogeneity of Hydrogels
11.8 Nanohydrogels and Their Applications
11.8.1 Polysaccharide‐Based Nanohydrogels
11.8.1.1 Hyaluronic Acid‐Based Nanohydrogels in Drug Delivery
11.8.1.2 Chitosan‐Based Nanohydrogels in Drug Delivery
11.8.1.3 Alginate‐Based Nanohydrogels in Drug Delivery
11.8.1.4 Pectin‐Based Nanohydrogels in Drug Delivery
11.8.1.5 Dextran‐Based Nanohydrogels in Drug Delivery
11.8.1.6 Cellulose‐Based Nanohydrogels in Drug Delivery
Chapter 12 Nanofibrillated Cellulose and Copoly(amino acid) Hydrogel Matrices in Biotechnology and Biomedicine
12.1 History and Background of Celluloses
12.2 Structure of Cellulose
12.2.1 Characterization of Cellulose
12.2.2 Crystalline and Amorphous Regions
12.3.1 Nanofibrillated Cellulose (NFC)
12.3.2.1 Surface Modification of Nanofibrillated Cellulose
12.3.2.3 TEMPO‐Mediated Oxidation Pretreatment
12.3.2.4 Other Chemical Methods
12.3.3 Biomedical Applications of NFC
12.3.3.1 Immunoassays and Diagnostics
12.3.3.2 Three‐Dimensional (3D) Cell Cultures
12.3.3.3 Replacement of the Nucleus Pulposus
12.3.3.4 Controlled Drug Delivery
12.3.4 Biotechnology Applications of NFC
12.3.4.1 Genetically Engineered Fusion
12.3.4.2 Immobilization–Stabilization
12.3.4.3 Cartilage Tissue Engineering
12.4.1 Role of Swelling in Hydrogels
12.4.1.1 Sol–Gel Transition in Hydrogels
12.4.1.2 Classification of Hydrogel Products
12.4.1.3 Hydrogel Technical Features
12.4.2 Preparation of Poly(amino acids)
12.4.3 Biomedical Application of Hydrogels
12.4.3.1 Treatment of Hepatoma
12.4.4 Biotechnology Applications of Hydrogels
12.4.4.1 Genetic Engineering
12.4.4.2 Amyloidogenicity Code
Nanocellulose and Nanohydrogel Matrices
：Biotechnological and Biomedical Applications
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