Chapter
1.3.3 Data Interpretation and Database Searching
1.4 Food Protein and Peptide Toxins from Micro-organisms
1.4.3 Other Fungal Toxins and LMW Mycotoxins
1.4.4 Marine and Cyanobacterial Biotoxins
1.7 Food Additives and Processing
2: Biotechnology-Based Sensing Platforms for Detecting Foodborne Pathogens
2.1.1 Health Legislations Governing Food and Food-related Products
2.1.2 Emerging Foodborne Pathogens
2.2 Different Methods for Pathogen Detection
2.2.1 Conventional Culture and Colony-Based Techniques
2.2.2 Antibody-Based Detection Technologies
2.3 Biosensors to Detect Foodborne Pathogen
2.3.1 Introduction to Biosensors
2.3.2.1 Enzyme-Based Bioreceptors
2.3.2.2 Antibody-Based Bioreceptors
2.3.2.3 Nucleic Acid-Based Bioreceptors
2.3.2.4 Cell-Based Bioreceptors
2.3.3 Biomimetic Receptors
2.6.1 Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
2.6.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance
2.6.3 Fiber Optic Biosensor
2.7 Polymerase Chain Reaction Based Detection Technology
2.8 Multiplexed Bead-Based Mesofluidic System
2.9 Future Genomics-Based Systems
3: Review of Sample Treatments and the State-of-the-art of Analytical Techniques for Mycotoxins in Food
3.8 Multi-Mycotoxin Determination
3.9 Final Remarks and Conclusions
4: Isothermal Nucleic Acid Amplification for Food Toxicity Analyses
4.2 Isothermal Amplification Reactions
4.2.1 Nucleic Acid Sequence-Based Amplification
4.2.2 Strand Displacement Amplification
4.2.3 Multiple Displacement Amplification
4.2.4 Rolling Circle Amplification
4.2.5 Helicase-dependent Amplification
4.2.6 Recombinase Polymerase Amplification
4.2.7 Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification
4.2.8 Emerging Isothermal Amplification Methods
4.3 Comparison of Isothermal Techniques
4.4 Available Technologies
4.4.1 Benchtop Instruments
4.4.3 Lateral Flow Assays
4.4.5 Miniaturized Devices
4.4.6 Instrument-free Strategies
4.5 Applications for Food Toxicity Analyses
4.5.2 Fungal Contamination
4.5.5 Food Authentication
4.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Section II: Microbial and Plant Toxins
5: Determination of Mycotoxins in Food
5.3 Mycotoxins in Food: Legislation and Provision
5.4 Detection of Mycotoxins
5.4.1 Conventional Analytical Methods
5.4.1.1 Sample Pre-treatment Techniques
5.4.1.2 Methods for Qualitative/Quantitative Analytical Analysis
5.4.2.1 Bioreceptors in Biosensors
5.4.2.3 Electrochemical Biosensors
5.4.2.4 Optical Biosensors
5.4.2.5 Bio-Affinity Methods
5.4.3 Other Detection Methodologies
5.4.3.1 Optical Rotatory Dispersion
5.4.3.2 Circular Dichroism
5.4.3.3 Optical Spectroscopy Methods
5.4.3.4 Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
5.4.3.5 Fourier Transforms Infrared Spectroscopy
5.4.3.6 Raman Spectroscopy
6: Mycotoxins Detection in Asia
6.2 Food Sampling for Mycotoxins Analysis
6.2.1 Sample Extraction and Purification
6.2.1.1 Sample Extraction
6.2.1.2 Pressurised Liquid Extraction (PLE)
6.2.1.3 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
6.2.1.4 Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
6.2.1.5 Ultrasonic Extraction (USE)
6.2.2 Sample Purification
6.2.2.1 Solid-Phase Extraction
6.2.2.2 Liquid-Liquid Extraction
6.2.2.3 Immunoaffinity Columns
6.2.2.4 Quick-Easy-Cheap-Effective-Rugged-Safe Extraction
6.3.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
6.3.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
6.3.4 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (HPLC-MS)
6.3.5 Rapid Screening Methods
6.3.6 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays
6.3.7 Dipsticks and Lateral Flow Tests
7: Surface Plasmon Resonance Analysis of Food Toxins and Toxicants
7.2 Detection of Toxins and Other Toxicants in Food Samples
7.2.2 Pathogen Microorganisms
7.2.3.1 Antibiotics and Hormones
7.2.4.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins
8: Food Poisoning Case Studies: Mushroom and Pufferfish Toxin Investigation
8.2 Brief Review of Analytical Methods
8.3 Case Study Related to Food Poisoning
8.3.1 WHO's Mushroom Poisoning Incident Referral
8.3.1.2 DNA Analysis of Mushroom Sample
8.3.1.3 Results and Discussions
8.3.2 Food Surveillance for Processed Foods
8.3.2.1 LC-MS/MS Methods for TTX
8.3.2.2 DNA Analysis of Dried Fish Sample
8.3.2.3 Results and Discussion
9: The Analysis of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Honey
9.2 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
9.2.2 Levels of Occurrence
9.3.3 Extraction and Cleanup
9.4 Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry
9.4.1 Quantification by LC-MS
9.5 Sum Parameter Methods for PA Quantitation
9.6 Method Validation and Proficiency Tests
9.7 Comparison of Direct and Sum Parameter Approaches
9.8 Analysis of Borage Oil and Bee Products
9.9 Immunological Methods for PA Determination
10: Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids in Food: Analytical, Toxicological and Health Considerations
10.1.1 Chemistry of Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
10.1.2 PA-Containing Plants
10.1.3 Biosynthesis of PAs
10.2.1 Toxicity Studies in Animals
10.2.5 Symptoms of Toxicity
10.4 Human PA Intoxications
10.4.2 Teas and Herbal Products
10.4.3 Traditional Medicines
10.4.4 PA Poisoning Through Foodstuffs
10.5 Analytical Methods for PA Determination
10.5.1 Extraction Methods
10.5.2 Clean-up Procedures
10.5.4 Chromatographic Methods
10.5.4.1 Thin-layer Chromatography
10.5.4.2 Gas Chromatography
10.5.4.3 High Performance Liquid Chromatography
10.5.4.4 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
10.5.4.5 Use of Enzyme-Linked Immunoassays
10.5.4.6 Biological Assays
10.5.4.7 Other Techniques
Section III: Marine Toxins
11: The Determination of Marine Biotoxins in Seafood
11.2.1 Neurotoxins Including PSP Toxins and TTXs
11.2.2 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs
11.3.2 Neurotoxins Including PSP Toxins, TTX, NSP Toxins and CFP Toxins
11.3.3 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs
11.4 Immunochemical Methods
11.4.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins
11.4.5 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs
11.5 Analytical Chemical Methods
11.5.2 Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins
11.5.3 Lipophilic Biotoxins Including DSP Toxins, AZP Toxins, YTXs, PTXs and CIs
12: Detection of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Molluscs
12.2.1.2 Receptor Binding Assay
12.2.1.3 Immunological, Cytotoxic and Radioligand Binding Assays
12.2.2.1 Reference Materials
12.2.2.2 Extraction Methods
12.2.2.3 HPLC with Pre-Column Oxidation
12.2.2.5 Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography
12.2.2.6 High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
12.3 Routine Shellfish Testing
12.3.2 High Resolution and Novel MS Approaches
12.3.2.1 High Resolution Mass Spectrometry
12.4 Conclusions and Future Outlook
13: Determination of Saxitoxin and Tetrodotoxin in Fish
13.2.2 In vitro Receptor Binding Assay
13.2.3 Molecular Recognition Assays
13.2.3.1 Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
13.2.3.2 Surface Plasmon Resonance Assay
13.2.4 Chromatographic Detection Methods
13.2.4.1 Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection
13.2.4.2 Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectrometric Detection
13.3.1 Extraction of Toxin from Fish
13.3.2 Sample Purification
14: Determination of Saxitoxin, Tetrodotoxin and Common Phycotoxins
14.2 Saxitoxin and Analogs
14.2.1 Functional and Antibody-Based Assays
14.2.2.1 Liquid Chromatography with Fluorimetric Detection
14.2.2.2 Liquid Chromatography with Mass Spectrometric Detection
14.3.1 The Need for Analysis of TTX
14.3.3 Simultaneous Analysis of TTX and PSPs
14.4 Toxicity Equivalency Factors
15: Ciguatoxin Detection Methods and High-Throughput Assays
15.1.2 Clinical Presentation of Ciguatera
15.1.3 Pharmacology of Ciguatoxins
15.2.1 In Vivo Detection of Ciguatoxins
15.2.2 Immunochemical Assays
15.2.3 Receptor Binding Assays
15.2.4.1 Tetrazolium Cell Viability Assay
15.2.4.2 Cell-Based Fluorescent Imaging Assays
15.2.5 High-Throughput Electrophysiology
Section IV: Biogenic Amines and Common Food Toxicants
16. Detection of Histamine Based on Biosensor System
16.2 Histamine Detection Methods
16.2.1 Histamine Sensor Using Enzymes
16.2.2 Thermostable Histamine Oxidase
16.2.2.1 Expression and Purification of the Recombinant Histamine Oxidase from KAIT-B-007
16.2.3 Micro-Bioreactor-Based Histamine-Sensing System
16.3 Detection of Histamine in Raw Fish
16.4 Conclusion and Future Landscape
17: Flow-based Technology for Analysis of Food Pesticides
17.2 Flow-Based Methodologies
17.3 Detection Techniques
17.3.1.1 Flow Analysis Systems
17.3.2 Electrochemical Detection
17.3.2.1 Non-enzymatic Reaction
17.3.2.2 Enzymatic Reaction
17.4 Conclusions and Future Trends
18: Residual Pesticides and Heavy Metals Analysis in Food
18.2 Analytical Chemistry: Historical Notes
18.3 Analytical Chemistry: Today and Tomorrow
18.4 The Role of Analytical Chemistry in the Development of Chemical Industry
18.5 The Role of Analytical Testing in Maintaining Food Safety
18.6 Analytical Techniques of Food Analysis
18.6.2 Sample Preparation for Pesticide Residues in Food
18.6.3.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE)
18.6.3.2 Solid-Phase Extraction
18.6.3.3 Solid-Phase Microextraction (SPME)
18.6.3.4 Matrix Solid-Phase Dispersion (MSPD)
18.6.3.5 Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Microextraction (DLLME)
18.6.3.6 Stir-Bar Sorptive Extraction (SBSE)
18.6.3.7 Single-Drop Microextraction (SDME)
18.6.3.8 Pressurized Fluid Extraction (PFE)
18.6.3.9 Microwave-Assisted Extraction
18.6.3.10 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
18.6.3.11 The QuEChERS Method
18.6.4.1 Solid-Phase Extraction
18.6.4.2 Dispersive Solid-Phase Extraction
18.6.4.3 Gel Permeation Chromatography
18.6.5.1 Evolution of Methodologies
18.6.5.2 Recent Techniques of Pesticide Analysis
18.7 Analysis of Heavy Metals in Food
18.7.1 Sample Preparation for Heavy Metal Analyses
18.7.2 Common Analytical Devices Used in Heavy Metal Analyses
18.8 Present Challenges and New Directions in Food Analysis
19: Microarray Methodologies for Pesticides and Other Toxins in Foods
19.2 Fabrication and Sensing Strategy in Microarray
19.2.1 Solid Supporting Materials
19.3 Microarray-Based Analysis of Pesticides
19.4 Microarray-Based Analysis of Toxic Contaminates
19.4.1 Microarray-Based Analysis of a Single Biotoxin
19.4.2 Microarray-Based Analysis of Multiple Biotoxins
19.4.3 Microarray-Based Analysis of a Single Heavy Metal Ion
19.4.4 Microarray-Based Analysis of Multiple Heavy Metal Ions
Section V: Quality Assurance and Regulatory Development
20: Accreditation, a Key Recognition for the Analysis of Food Toxins and Contaminants
20.2 What Is Accreditation
20.3 Quality Infrastructure of an Economy
20.5 Procedure for Assessing and Accrediting Laboratories
20.6 Scope of Accreditation
20.7 Requirements for Laboratory Accreditation
20.8 Laboratory Environment
20.10 Metrological Traceability
20.11 Measurement Uncertainty
20.13 Quality Assurance of Analytical Results
20.14 Proficiency Testing
20.15 International and Regional Accreditation Cooperation Bodies
20.16 Benefits of Accreditation
21: Quality Assurance and Control for Accurate Measurement of Food Toxins
21.3 Measurement of Natural Food Toxins
21.3.2 Quality Control of Test Methods
21.3.2.3 Ergot and Lectins
21.3.3 Method Development
21.3.3.1 The Basic Protocol
21.3.3.2 Guidance on Implementation
21.3.3.4 Choice of Component Procedures
21.3.3.5 Method Validation
21.3.3.6 Records and Results
21.3.3.7 Reference Documents
21.3.4 Standard Operating Procedure
21.3.5 Calibration and Quantification
21.4 Validation Techniques
22: Analytical Methods and Development of Reference Materials for Toxic Metals and Metal Species in Food and Dietary Supplements
22.2 Available Reference Materials
22.2.1 Production and Use of In-house Reference Materials
22.3 Arsenic and Arsenic Species
22.3.1 Sources and Occurrences in Foods and Dietary Supplements
22.3.2 Methods for Analyzing Arsenic and Arsenic Species
22.3.3 Toxicity of Arsenic Species
22.3.4 Regulations on Arsenic in Food
22.3.5 Reference Materials
22.4.1 Cadmium in the Food Chain
22.4.2 Lead in the Food Chain
22.4.3 Measurement of Cadmium and Lead in Food and Dietary Supplements
22.4.3.1 Sample Digestion
22.4.3.2 Contamination Control
22.4.3.3 Spectral and Non-Spectral Interferences
22.4.3.4 Quantification Strategies
22.5 Mercury and Organo-Mercury in Food and Dietary Supplements
22.5.1 Global and Environmental Sources
22.5.2 Sources/Occurrences in Foods and Dietary Supplements
22.5.3 Toxicity, Health Implications and Regulatory Limits
22.5.4 Methods for Analyzing Mercury and Mercury Species in Food and Supplements
22.5.5 Reference Materials for Mercury and Mercury Species in Food and Supplements
23: Overview of Toxins and Toxicants in Food and Their Regulatory Limits
23.1.1 Historical Background to the Development of Legislation and Regulatory Limits Relating to Toxins and Toxicants in Food
23.1.2 FAO/WHO and the Codex Alimentarius
23.1.2.1 Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed
23.1.2.2 Global Food Legislation, Standards and Regulatory Limits
23.2 Microbial Foodborne Pathogens and Toxins
23.2.1 Range of Microbial Hazards (Toxins, Toxicants and Pathogens)
23.2.2.1 The Development of Regulatory Standards for Mycotoxins
23.2.2.2 Codex Standards for Mycotoxins
23.2.2.3 Mycotoxins Standards Worldwide
23.3.1 Pyrrolizidine Alkaloids
23.3.1.1 In Honey and Bee Products
23.3.1.2 In Food Supplements, Herbal Teas and Herbal Remedies
23.3.1.3 In Other Sources
23.3.1.4 Regulatory Limits for PAs in Food
23.3.2 Cyanogenic Glycosides
23.3.2.1 International Regulatory Limits Relating to Cyanogenic Glycosides
23.3.2.2 Australia and New Zealand Survey on Cyanogenic Glycosides
23.3.4 Other Plant-Derived Toxins
23.3.4.1 Tropane Alkaloids
23.3.4.2 Kava Kava (Piper methysticum)
23.3.4.3 Aristolochic Acid
23.3.5 Mushroom and Toadstool Toxins
23.3.5.1 Mushroom Toxins and Their Toxic Effects
23.3.5.2 Regulatory Limits for Mushroom Toxins
23.4 Phycotoxins/Marine Biotoxins
23.4.2 Worldwide Legislative Standards
23.4.3 Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP)
23.4.4.1 Occurrence of Tetrodotoxin
23.4.4.2 Regulatory Limits for TTX
23.5 Biogenic Amines and Common Food Toxicants/Allergens
23.5.2 Common Food Toxicants
24: Food Allergy: Managing Food Allergens
24.2 What Is Food Allergy?
24.2.1 Allergen Nomenclature
24.2.4 Severity of Allergic Reaction
24.3 Is There a Cure for Food Allergy?
24.3.1 Prevention of Food Allergy
24.4 Food Allergen Management
24.4.2 Precautionary Allergen Labelling
24.6 Reference Doses, Action Limits and Thresholds
24.6.1 Deterministic Allergen Risk Assessment
24.6.2 Probabilistic Allergen Risk Assessment
24.6.3 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats
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