Chapter
2.6 Asymmetries: when opposites are not alike
2.6.1 Uncorrelated and correlated asymmetries
2.6.1.1 Why value asymmetries require more careful thought than RHP asymmetries
2.6.1.2 RHP and V asymmetries may covary
2.6.2 What to do if RHP or V varies depending on the information available
2.6.2.1 The Napoleon complex
2.6.2.2 Explicit modelling of future options
2.6.3 True open-box models
2.6.3.1 Sequential assessment game
2.6.4.1 Cumulative assessment game
2.6.4.2 Honesty, bluff and badges of status
2.6.4.3 Threat displays: some of them can be dishonest
2.6.4.4 Are threat signals handicaps?
2.6.5 Are uncorrelated asymmetries important?
2.6.5.1 Bourgeois and its paradoxical mirror image
2.6.5.2 The desperado effect
2.6.5.3 Towards population-level feedback
2.6.5.4 What has eco-evolutionary feedback shown?
2.7.1 Neighbours versus strangers
2.8 Conclusions and future directions
3 Models of group or multi-party contests
3.2.1 Multi-party contests in nature
3.3 Modelling approaches to multi-party contests
3.3.1 Classification of multi-party contests
3.4 One player versus one player contests, with one observer
3.4.1 Eavesdropping influences the level of aggression
3.4.2 Signals can evolve to influence third parties
3.5 Two players versus one player contests
3.5.1 Coalitions to obtain or retain a reward
3.5.2 Defensive coalitions to retain a territory
3.6 Warfare: n1 players versus n2 players
3.7 Contest behaviour and social structure
3.8 Prospects and conclusions
4 Analysis of animal contest data
4.3 Analysis of contest outcome
4.3.1 Contest outcome as an explanatory variable
4.3.1.2 Repeated measures analysis
4.3.1.3 Contest outcomes as influences on future contests
4.3.2 Contest outcome as the response variable
4.3.2.1 Generalised linear models
4.3.2.2 Logistic analysis
4.3.2.3 More complex logistic models
4.3.2.4 Further advantages and disadvantages of logistic analysis
4.3.3 Mixed-effect models
4.4 Analysis of contest duration
4.4.1 Statistical analysis of contest duration
4.5 Analysis of contest dynamics and structures
4.5.1 Analysis of contest dynamics
4.5.2 Analysis of contest structure
4.5.2.1 Sequential and time-interval analysis
4.6 Analysis of dominance hierarchies: links between contests and social structure
4.6.1 Dominance ranking techniques
4.6.1.3 The Elo-rating method
4.6.1.4 The dominance score
4.6.1.5 Conclusions on dominance ranking
4.7 Analysis of honesty and bluffing in agonistic signals
5 Contests in crustaceans: assessments, decisions and their underlying mechanisms
5.3 Information, assessments and decisions
5.3.1 Strategic decisions and resource holding potential
5.3.1.1 What determines RHP?
5.3.2 Strategic decisions and resource value
5.3.3 What do fighting animals know? Studies of motivation
5.3.4.1 Honest and deceptive communication
5.4.1 Direct and circumstantial costs
5.4.2 Energy and fighting
6.2.1 Contests between males
6.2.2 Contests between females
6.2.3 Contests between the sexes
6.3 Assessment strategies in spider contests
6.3.1 Resource holding potential
6.3.3 Owner-intruder asymmetries
6.4 Consequences of aggressive encounters
6.4.1 Physiological consequences
6.4.2 Physical consequences
6.4.5 Accumulation of high quality male residents
6.4.6 Sexual size dimorphism
6.5 Motivational change and decision-making in spider contests
6.5.1 A new two-dimensional motivational model
6.6 Selection and contest behaviour
6.7 Conclusion and future directions
7 Contest behaviour in butterflies: fighting without weapons
7.3 Butterflies as a system for contest studies
7.4 The nature of butterfly contests
7.5.2 Wars of attrition and the physiology of contest persistence
7.5.3 Butterflies and the life-history context of contest competition
7.6 Conclusions and future research directions
8 Hymenopteran contests and agonistic behaviour
8.3 Dyadic female-female contests
8.3.1 Contests for hosts: influences of RHP and V
8.3.1.1 Successive contests for hosts: influences on subsequent RHP and V
8.3.2 Contests for patches of hosts
8.3.3 Effects of female-female contests on population and community ecology
8.4 Dyadic male-male contests
8.4.1 Contests for mates: influences of RHP and V
8.4.2 Kinship among contestants and the evolution of social behaviour
8.5 Dyadic and group-level contests between social hymenopterans
8.5.1 Intra-colony interactions
8.5.2 Inter-colony interactions
8.5.2.1 Contests between reproductives
8.5.2.2 Contests between workers
8.5.3 Eco-evolutionary consequences of social insect agonistic behaviour
8.6 Conclusions and prospects
9 Horns and the role of development in the evolution of beetle contests
9.3 Review of contest behaviour
9.3.1 Functions of fighting in Coleoptera
9.3.1.1 Access to females
9.3.2 Determinants of contest outcome
9.3.3 Assessment and escalation in contests
9.3.3.1 Escalation in contests
9.3.3.2 Assessment and signalling during contests
9.4 Consequences of fighting: evolution of weaponry
9.4.1 Methods of weapon use in Coleoptera
9.4.2 Hypotheses for the evolution of weaponry in Coleoptera
9.4.2.1 Tunnels: defendable resources and fighting arenas
9.4.2.2 Hardened cuticle: reduced injury and mobility
9.4.2.3 Reduced pleiotropic constraints: adult food source
9.5 Consequences of fighting: evolution of alternative mating tactics
9.5.1 Selection for alternative tactics
9.5.2 Tactics of 'minor’ (hornless) males
9.6 The evolution of thresholds for the development of weaponry
9.6.1 The evolution of morphological thresholds
9.6.2 Thresholds and the preponderance of beetle horns
9.7 Developmental insights into the evolution of weapons and contests
9.7.1 The development of beetle horns: conservation with divergence
9.7.2 The origins of male dimorphism in horned beetles
9.7.3 The origins of sexual dimorphism in horned beetles
9.7.4 The dual use of beetle horns: implications for studying weapon evolution
9.7.5 The role of developmental trade-offs in shaping weapon and species diversity
9.8 Conclusions: beetles as a system for studying contest behaviour
10 Contest behaviour in fishes
10.3 Fighting ability and assessment
10.3.1 Perspectives on resource holding potential
10.3.2 Assessment during contests
10.4 Winner and loser effects
10.5 Mechanisms and performance characteristics
10.5.1 Hormones, metabolism and gene expression profiling
10.5.2 Morphology, kinematics and biomechanics
10.6 Selection, plasticity and dominance
10.6.1 Selection regimes, integrated phenotypes and contest behaviour
10.6.2 Developmental plasticity and dominance
11 Contests in amphibians
11.2.1 Amphibian biology and its importance to contest behaviour
11.3.1 Weapons in anurans
11.3.2 Vocal contests in anurans
11.3.2.1 Advertisement calls and calling contests
11.3.2.1.1 Changes in call rate, duration and complexity
11.3.2.1.3 Changes in call timing
11.3.2.2 Defence of territories and calling sites
11.3.2.2.1 Assessment of fighting ability and/or aggressive intent
11.3.2.2.2 Costs and benefits of aggressive signalling and contests
11.3.2.2.3 Vocal contests in anurans: conclusions
11.3.3 Non-vocal contests in anurans
11.4 Territorial contests in salamanders
11.4.1 Sexual interference in urodeles
12 Lizards and other reptiles as model systems for the study of contest behaviour
12.3 Reptilian aggressive behaviour patterns
12.4 Benefits and costs of aggression
12.5 Aggression, social structure and alternative reproductive tactics
12.6 Phenotypic traits that influence RHP, contest outcome and social status
12.6.1 Morphometric traits
12.6.4 Whole-organism performance traits
12.6.5 Preferred body temperature
12.7 Influence of social context and experience on aggressive interactions in lizards
12.8 Interaction between hormones and aggression in lizards
12.9 Tests of game-theoretic models using lizards
12.10 Prospects for future studies
13 Bird contests: from hatching to fertilisation
13.3 Competition between siblings
13.4 Competition in social groups
13.4.1 Competition in dominance hierarchies
13.4.2 Competition with unfamiliar individuals and badges of status
13.5 Competition for breeding resources
13.5.1 Competition for territories
13.5.2 Competition among females
13.6 Post-copulatory competition
13.7 Competition using alternative strategies
14 Contest behaviour in ungulates
14.3.2 Visual displays: antlers and horns
14.3.3 Visual displays: lateral body presentation
14.4 Fighting: structure, outcome and assessment processes
14.4.4 Competition for resources
14.4.5 Assessment processes during contests
14.5 Choice of opponent: assessment and dominance
15 Human contests: evolutionary theory and the analysis of interstate war
15.2 Introduction: warfare as a Costly Process
15.3 Evolutionary analysis of animal conflict: basic parallels with interstate warfare
15.3.1 The numbers game: a note on attrition laws versus strategic decisions
15.3.2 Variables influencing contest outcome
15.3.3 Deception and the importance of costly signalling
15.3.4 Animal contests and evolutionary game-theory models
15.4 Costly Process models of war in relation to evolutionary models
15.4.1 War as information-gathering
15.4.2 War as a balance between incurring and inflicting costs
15.5 New directions for empirical research on interstate warfare
16 Prospects for animal contests
16.1 Repeated patterns in animal contest behaviour research
16.2 Opportunities for integrating contest studies
16.2.1 Integration with other areas of behavioural ecology
16.2.2 Integration with other contest studies
16.3 Securing the future of contest research
Animal Contests
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