Contents

Contributors

Preface

Abbreviations

Key words

Chapter 1 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods in Parkinson's disease

Introduction

Iron imaging in PD

Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI)

Magnetization transfer imaging (MTI)

Adiabatic rotating frame relaxation methods

Relaxations along a fictitious field (RAFF)

Volumetric measurements and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

Resting-state MRI

In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)

Clinical applications

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 2 Imaging iron in Parkinson's disease

Introduction

Iron in the brain

Quantitation of brain iron with MRI

Multimodal approaches

Susceptibility-based imaging

Deep brain stimulation

Differential diagnosis

Potential problems

Future developments

References

Chapter 3 Motor Parkinson's disease and structure

Abstract

Introduction

Imaging methods

Structural imaging

Acquisition techniques

Data analysis

Region of interest

Automated methods

Quantitative MRI techniques

Relaxometry

Magnetization transfer

Diffusion imaging

Anatomical and functional connectivity

Anatomical connectivity

Functional connectivity

MR imaging of the substantia nigra in PD

Other brainstem nuclei

The locus coeruleus

Pontine reticular formation

Cortical lesions

Functional connectivity

Differential diagnosis of parkinsonian syndromes

Conclusion

Disclosures/conflict of interest

References

Chapter 4 MR imaging of Parkinson's disease with cognitive impairment and dementia

Background

Magnetic resonance imaging: overview

Incident or early PD and MRI

Prevalent PD and cognitive impairment

The PD cognitive spectrum

MCI subgroups

Correlation with cognitive measures

Novel approaches

Structural imaging in PDD

Global MRI measures

Hippocampus and related structures

The effect of age and neuropsychiatric factors

Amygdala

Entorhinal cortex

Substantia innominata

Longitudinal studies

White matter changes

Summary

Acknowledgements

PubMed search terms

References

Chapter 5 Functional MRI of motor signs in Parkinson's disease

Introduction

Functional MRI correlates of hand movements in PD and changes with disease progression

Complex hand movements; learning sequences, dual tasking, bimanual coordination

Functional MRI correlates of motor symptoms in PD

Effect of treatment on BOLD signal changes in PD

Summary

References

Chapter 6 Functional MRI of cognition and mood in Parkinson's disease

Introduction

The functional neuroanatomy of the dopamine system

Functional imaging methods

Cortico-striatal network function and cognitive impairment in PD

Cortico-striatal network function and disorders of motivation in PD

Reward processing and learning

Incentive salience

Risk-taking

Non-cortico-striatal mechanisms

References

Chapter 7 Networks and resting state in Parkinson's disease

Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI)

Introduction

Origin and limitation of the BOLD signal

Anatomy of resting-state networks (RSN)

Methodologies

Seed-based method

Independent component analysis (ICA)

Causal methods

The PCfdr network approach

Dynamic Bayesian networks (DBNs)

Group network studies in causal networks

Graph theory analysis

Advantages of rs-fMRI

Diverse patient population

rs-fMRI changes as a marker of dysfunction

Parkinson's disease (PD)

Studies of altered functional connectivity in PD

Resting-state studies in PD

Tremor

Akinesia and freezing of gait

Effects of dopaminergic treatment

Cognitive assessment

DMN in PD during task performance

Future potential as a biomarker

Summary

References

Chapter 8 MRI for targeting in surgical treatment of movement disorders

Background

Anatomical and functional considerations of DBS targets for the treatment of movement disorders

The subthalamic nucleus (STN)

Globus pallidus internus (GPi)

Ventral intermediate nucleus (VIM)

Current technique for targeting in DBS surgery

Consensus target coordinates

Indirect versus direct targeting

Current MRI sequences for visualization of the STN, GPi, and VIM

Brain shift

Problems with current surgical targeting techniques

Microelectrode recording

Variability in target location

Accuracy of current stereotactic systems

Use of intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging for DBS surgery

High-field MRI: the promise and the challenges

MRI compatibility

References

Chapter 9 Magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy in Huntington's disease

Introduction

Role of MR in research and multicentric studies

Main MRI findings

Volumetric analysis

Diffusion imaging

Perfusion and functional MRI

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) in Huntington's disease

Quality of the 1H MR spectrum and quantification of the metabolites

1H MRS in Huntington's disease

1H MRS in animal models of HD

31P MRS

Conclusion

References

Chapter 10 Neuroimaging of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome

Introduction

Clinical aspects

Pathophysiology

Mapping brain abnormalities in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome with structural neuroimaging

Mapping brain abnormalities in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome with functional neuroimaging

Neurotransmission abnormalities in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome

Conclusions and further directions

References

Chapter 11 Dystonia

Introduction

Motor activation studies in dystonia

Functional MRI during sensory stimulation in dystonia

Resting-state MRI in dystonia

Structural MRI in dystonia: VBM and DTI

Summary

References

Chapter 12 Tauopathies

Introduction

Tauopathies

Clinical syndromes associated with tauopathies

Role of neuroimaging in tauopathies

Imaging in CBD and PSP

Progressive supranuclear palsy syndrome

Structural MRI

Diffusion tensor imaging

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Nuclear medicine

Resting-state fMRI

Corticobasal syndrome

Structural MRI

Diffusion tensor imaging

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Nuclear medicine

Progressive supranuclear palsy corticobasal syndrome hybrid

Primary progressive apraxia of speech

Imaging in pathologically confirmed PSP and CBD

Imaging in familial MAPT mutations

Structural MRI

Diffusion tensor imaging

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Resting-state fMRI

Nuclear medicine

Imaging in Pick's disease

Rare tauopathies

Argyrophilic grain disease

Globular glial tauopathy

Niemann-Pick disease type C

Postencephalitic parkinsonism

Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis

Tangle-dominant dementia

Summary

References

Chapter 13 Magnetic resonance imaging of multiple system atrophy

Introduction

Structural MRI in MSA

Methods to assess regional cerebral atrophy quantitatively

Planimetry

Volumetry

Quantitative structural MR-based techniques

Diffusion-weighted and diffusion tensor imaging

Magnetization transfer imaging

Iron-sensitive MRI

Multimodal imaging

Radiological correlations with pathological and clinical data using cMRI and DWI/DTI

Voxel-based analysis

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Progression studies with MRI

Imaging applications to clinical trials

Limitations

Summary

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 14 Ataxia

Introduction

Autosomal recessive ataxias with known gene mutation

Friedreich's ataxia

Ataxia telangiectasia

Autosomal recessive ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 1 and 2 (AOA1 and AOA2)

Ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 1 (AOA1)

Ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 2 (AOA2)

Refsum's disease

Ataxia with isolated vitamin E deficit (AVED)

Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis (CTX)

X-linked ataxias

Fragile X tremor/ataxia syndrome (FXTAS)

Autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxias

Spinocerebellar ataxia 1

Spinocerebellar ataxia 2

Spinocerebellar ataxia 3

Spinocerebellar ataxia 6

Spinocerebellar ataxia 7

Spinocerebellar ataxia 17

References

Chapter 15 Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in Parkinson's disease

Introduction

Magnetic resonance spectroscopy

N-acetylaspartate

Creatine and phosphocreatine

Choline-containing compounds

myo-Inositol

Glutamate and glutamine

ɣ-aminobutyric acid

Glutathione and ascorbate

Lactate

Adenosine triphosphate

Potential sources of variability in MRS studies

Conclusions and future directions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 16 The image of essential tremor: current neuroimaging and clues to disease localization, pathogenesis, and diagnosis

Introduction

Question 1: Does the disease process originate in the cerebellum or a cerebellar motor loop system, or does it originate in the brainstem?

Introduction

The disease process in ET originates in the cerebellum: neuroimaging evidence

The disease process in ET originates in the brainstem: neuroimaging evidence

Summary

Question 2: Is ET neurodegenerative?

Introduction

ET is neurodegenerative: neuroimaging evidence

ET is not neurodegenerative: neuroimaging evidence

Summary

Question 3: Can one use neuroimaging as a diagnostic tool to distinguish ET from PD?

Introduction

Neuroimaging may be used as a diagnostic tool to distinguish ET from PD

Neuroimaging may not be used as a diagnostic tool to distinguish ET from PD

Summary

Summary and future directions

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 17 Clinical applications

Introduction

Common normal and non-specific abnormalities

Normal and abnormal metal deposition affecting the basal ganglia

Calcium: physiological versus pathological calcification of the basal ganglia

Iron: physiological versus pathological iron deposition within the basal ganglia

Copper

Hepatic disorders and manganese

Other rare disorders involving heavy metals

Extrapyramidal disorders

Parkinsonism

Chorea

Dystonia

Ataxia

Hereditary

Acquired

Infective/Post-infective

References

Chapter 18 MRI in clinical trials

Introduction

Characteristic of an ideal outcome measure for clinical trials

Potential MRI measures for clinical trials

Structural MRI

Diffusion MRI

Functional MRI

Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy

Other MRI uses

Discussion

Acknowledgements

References

Index