Chapter
Geotherms and thermal structure
Heat transfer in the lithosphere
4: Large-scale features of orogens: thrusts and folds
Arcuation of orogens and oroclines
Physical properties of thrust faults
Classification of thrusts
(a) Gravity gliding or spreading/flow models
(b) Extrusion of orogen-scale tectonic wedges
(d) 'Push-from-behind'
model
Relationship between folds and thrusts
Transport direction in thrusting
Internal strain in thrust sheets
Rotation of thrust sheets about a vertical axis
The transition from passive margin to active margin
Symmetry and asymmetry in orogens
Uplift and collapse of mountains
The Himalayan Karakoram and Tibetan orogen
Mechanics of shortening in the Himalaya
The South Tibetan Detachment (STD)
Underthrusting in the Himalaya
The metamorphic evolution of the Himalaya
Pre-Cenozoic thickening in Tibet?
Differences between North and South Tibet
Culminations and depressions
The North Alpine Foreland Basin
Ultra-high-pressure metamorphism
Underplating and the orogenic wedge
The current view on evolution
Continent–continent convergence after final closure of the ocean:the late movements in the Alps
Dextral strike-slip tectonics
Comparisons between the Alps and the Himalaya
Cordilleran belts: the North and South American Cordillera
Subduction of the Nazca plate
Control over the upper slab deformation by the convergence direction of South America and Nazca
Structural units and shortening in the Andean belt
Thick-skinned or thin-skinned thrusts?
Timing of crustal thickening
Deep structure of the Andes
The North American Cordillera
Caledonides of the North Atlantic
Caledonides in North America
The Scandian orogeny: closure of Iapetus
Sinistral transpression during the Scandian orogeny
Kinematic indicators of strike-slip movements
Switch to orogen-parallel motion
Sinistral transtensional regime
Oblique collision in the Zagros
6: Lateral spreading of orogens: foreland propagation, channel flow and weak zones in the crust
Cause of orogenic spreading
Metamorphic core complexes
Extrusion and channel flow
Couette and Poiseuille flow
Driving force for channel flow
Low-viscosity layers in the crust
Tests for the channel flow model
Deep crustal flow in Tibet
Is channel flow a special case confined to the Himalaya?
7: Metamorphism in orogeny
General characterisation of metamorphism
Mapping metamorphism: from isograds to facies
Facies series, progressive metamorphism and evaluation of regional P-T variations
Early perspectives on metamorphism in relation to tectonics
Metamorphism and thermal modelling
Quantification of metamorphism: from mineral assemblages to P–T diagrams
Composition-assemblage diagrams and projections
Petrogenetic grids and Schreinemakers´ nets
Divariant and multivariant equilibria – from Schreinemakers´ nets to pseudosections
Crustal melting and orogeny
Melting processes and temperature conditions
Migmatites and migmatite terrains
Partial melting, migmatites and the strength and behaviour of orogens
The P–T realm of metamorphism: the current view
Pressure-temperature (P–T) paths and pressure-temperature-time (P–T–t) paths
Blueschist-eclogite and UHP metamorphism
Background and P–T domain
Timescales of HP/UHP metamorphism and rates of exhumation
Models for UHP rock exhumation
Collision and medium P/T metamorphism: Barrovian type metamorphism
Barrovian facies series and the Himalayan case study
Barrovian collisional metamorphism and inverted zones: models for orogen development
Channel flow and Himalayan metamorphic zones: timing and P–T paths
Problems with channel flow as a model for the Himalayan metamorphism
Collision and medium P/T metamorphism: eclogite–high-pressure granulite (E-HPG)
Background and P–T domain
Pressure–temperature–time paths
Formation and exhumation of E-HPG metamorphic rocks
Bohemian Massif – rapid buoyancy-driven vertical extrusion of HPG?
Caledonian E-HPG in Norway and Greenland
The Grenville Province: heterogeneous ductile flow and exhumation of E-HPG rocks and deep orogen interiors
Low P/T metamorphism: granulite and UHT metamorphism in orogeny
Background and P–T domain (low P/T and UHT)
Pressure–temperature–time paths in G-UHT
Timescales of G-UHT metamorphism: orogenic and other settings
Hot orogens and G-UHT metamorphism
Gravitational spreading, core complexes and extensional metamorphism
8: The erosion and exhumation of mountains
Examples of the linkage between tectonics and erosion
Dating the rates of exhumation and uplift in mountain belts
The mass balance within an orogen
The measurement of the rate of exhumation
Exhumation of the Himalaya
9: Sedimentary history of the foredeep basins
Isostasy and Bouguer anomalies
A classification of foreland basins
Foredeeps and advancing thrust sheets
Isostatic adjustments in foredeeps
Thermochronology using detrital minerals
The exhumation and uplift of the Alps
Sediment budgets in SE Asia
10: Deep structure, mountain support and phase changes
Rock densities and isostasy
Support for the load of orogens
Geophysical studies in the Himalaya–Tibet
Recent geophysical work on the deep structure of Tibet
Receiver function analysis and shear wave splitting detect the deep structure
Phase changes in the deep structure
Eclogitisation and the 'weighting of orogens'
Eclogitisation and exhumation and collapse in other orogens
The rapid phase change from granulite to eclogite facies and vice versa
Basement control, reactivation and reworking
11: Mountains and climate
The significance of the Tibetan Plateau
Climate change in the Cenozoic
Evidence for global climate change in the late Miocene and Pliocene
How does the Tibetan Plateau disrupt global circulation?
A possible threshold height for the plateau
A causal relation between plateau uplift and mantle dynamics
When did the plateau attain its present elevation?
Weakening of the monsoon at 8 Ma – a counter-argument
Monsoon precipitation as a tectonic forcer
Monsoon controls erosion in the Himalaya
Himalayan uplift and the chemical composition of the oceans
Proposed link between the Himalaya and chemical erosion
12: Secular change in orogeny
Secular change in heat production and the Earth´s thermal budget
Modelling the onset of subduction and its consequences
Secular change in metamorphism in orogenic belts
Accretion, amalgamation and collision from the Palaeoproterozoic to NeoArchaean
The Trans-Hudson Orogeny of Canada
The Lewisian of northwest Scotland
The Archaean Gneiss Complex of southwest Greenland
Weak lithospheres and 'ultrahot'
orogens
Orogenesis
：The Making of Mountains
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