An Introduction to Statistical Analysis in Research

Contents

Preface

Examples from the Book

Acknowledgments

About the Companion Website

1 Experimental Design

1.1 Experimental Design Background

Case Study

1.2 Sampling Design

Random Sample

Systematic Sample

Stratified Sample

Volunteer Sample

Sample of Convenience

Counterbalancing

1.3 Sample Analysis

1.4 Hypotheses

1.5 Variables

Case Study

Types of Variables

2 Central Tendency and Distribution

2.1 Central Tendency and Other Descriptive Statistics

Sampling Data and Distribution

Measures of Central Tendencies: Describing a Population

Mean

Median

Mode

2.2 Distribution

Summary

Nuts and Bolts

Describing the Shapes of Histograms

Outliers

Quantifying the p-Value and Addressing Error in Hypothesis Testing

Summary

Data Transformation

Log Transformation

Square-Root Transformation

Arcsine Transformation

Building Blocks

Tutorials

2.3 Descriptive Statistics in Excel

Mean

Median

Mode

Variance

Standard Deviation

Skewness

Kurtosis

Descriptive Statistics Command

2.4 Descriptive Statistics in SPSS

2.5 Descriptive Statistics in Numbers

Mean

Median

Mode

Variance

Standard Deviation

2.6 Descriptive Statistics in R

Mean

Median

Mode

Variance

Standard Deviation

Skewness

Kurtosis

3 Showing Your Data

3.1 Background on Tables and Graphs

3.2 Tables

3.3 Bar Graphs, Histograms, and Box Plots

Background

Types of Bar Graphs

Box Plots

Tutorials

How to Make a Bar Chart in Excel

How to Make a Bar Chart in SPSS

How to Make a Bar Chart in Numbers

How to Make a Bar Chart in R

How to Make a Box Plot in SPSS

How to Make a Box Plot in R

How to Make a Histogram in Excel

How to Make a Histogram in SPSS

How to Make a Histogram in Numbers

How to Make a Histogram in R

3.4 Line Graphs and Scatter Plots

Background

Line Graphs

Scatter Plots

Tutorials

How to Make a Line Graph and Scatter Plot in Excel

How to Make a Line Graph and Scatter Plot in SPSS

How to Make a Line Graph and Scatter Plot in Numbers

How To Make a Line Graph and Scatter Plot in R

3.5 Pie Charts

Background

Tutorials

How to Make a Pie Chart in Excel

How to Make a Pie Chart in SPSS

How to Make a Pie Chart in Numbers

How to Make a Pie Chart in R

4 Parametric versus Nonparametric Tests

4.1 Overview

4.2 Two-Sample and Three-Sample Tests

5 t-Test

5.1 Students t-Test Background

5.2 Example t-Tests

One-Sample t-Test

Two-Sample Independent t-Test

Two-Sample Paired t-Test

Hypotheses

Output

Assumptions

Nuts and Bolts

5.3 Case Study

Experimental Data

Graph

Concluding Statement

Tutorials

5.4 Excel Tutorial

t-Test Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

5.5 Paired t-Test SPSS Tutorial

Paired-Samples t-Test SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

5.6 Independent t-Test SPSS Tutorial

Example Dataset

Independent t–Test SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

5.7 Numbers Tutorial

t-Test Numbers Tutorial

Concluding Statement

5.8 R Independent/Paired-Samples t-Test Tutorial

Independent-Samples t-Test R Tutorial

Concluding Statement

6 ANOVA

6.1 ANOVA Background

One-Way ANOVA

Two-Way ANOVA

Repeated Measures ANOVA

Two-Way rANOVA

One- or Two-Way ANOVA or rANOVA Nuts and Bolts

Assumptions

Hypotheses

Output

Post Hoc Analyses

6.2 Case Study

Experimental Result

Concluding Statement

Tutorials

6.3 One-Way ANOVA Excel Tutorial

ANOVA Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

6.4 One-Way ANOVA SPSS Tutorial

ANOVA SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

6.5 One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA SPSS TUTORIAL

One-Way ANOVA with Repeated Measures SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

6.6 Two-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA SPSS Tutorial

Two-Way ANOVA with Repeated Measures SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

6.7 One-Way ANOVA Numbers Tutorial

ANOVA Numbers Tutorial

Concluding Statement

6.8 One-Way R Tutorial

One-Way ANOVA R Tutorial

Concluding Statement

6.9 Two-Way ANOVA R Tutorial

Two-Way ANOVA R Tutorial

Concluding Statement

7 Mann–Whitney and Wilcoxon Signed-Rank

7.1 Mann--Whitney U and Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Background

7.2 Assumptions

Generalized Hypotheses

7.3 Case Study -- Mann—Whitney U Test

Experimental Data

Experimental Results

Graph

Concluding Statement

7.4 Case Study -- Wilcoxon Signed-Rank

Experimental Data

Experimental Results

Graph

Concluding Statement

Tutorials

7.5 Mann--Whitney U Excel Tutorial

Mann–Whitney U Test Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

7.6 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Excel Tutorial

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

7.7 Mann--Whitney U SPSS Tutorial

Mann–Whitney U Test SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

7.8 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank SPSS Tutorial

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

7.9 Mann--Whitney U Numbers Tutorial

Mann–Whitney U Test Numbers Tutorial

Concluding Statement

7.10 Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Numbers Tutorial

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Numbers Tutorial

Concluding Statement

7.11 Mann--Whitney U/Wilcoxon Signed-Rank R Tutorial

Mann–Whitney U Test Numbers Tutorial

Concluding Statement

8 Kruskal–Wallis

8.1 Kruskal–Wallis Background

8.2 Case Study 1

Experimental Data

Experimental Results

Graph

Concluding Statement

Nuts and Bolts

Assumptions

8.3 Case Study 2

Experimental Data

Experimental Results

Graph

Concluding Statement

Tutorials

8.4 Kruskal–Wallis Excel Tutorial

Kruskal–Wallis Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

8.5 Kruskal–Wallis SPSS Tutorial

Kruskal–Wallis SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

8.6 Kruskal–Wallis Numbers Tutorial

Kruskal–Wallis Numbers Tutorial

Concluding Statement

8.7 Kruskal–Wallis R Tutorial

Kruskal–Wallis R Tutorial

Concluding Statement

9 Chi-Square Test

9.1 Chi-Square Background

9.2 Case Study 1

Generalized Hypotheses

Assumptions

Nuts and Bolts

Concluding Statement

9.3 Case Study 2

Chi-Square Analysis

Concluding Statement

Tutorials

9.4 Chi-Square Excel Tutorial

Example Dataset

Chi-Square Excel Tutorial

Observed Chi-Square Value Computation

p-Value Computation

Concluding Statement

9.5 Chi-Square SPSS Tutorial

Chi-Square SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

9.6 Chi-Square Numbers Tutorial

Chi-Square Numbers Tutorial

Concluding statement

9.7 Chi-Square R Tutorial

Chi-Square R Tutorial

Concluding Statement

10 Pearson's and Spearman's Correlation

10.1 Correlation Background

10.2 Example

Concluding Statements

Nuts and Bolts

Hypotheses

Pearson's Correlation Versus Spearman's Correlation

Assumptions

10.3 Case Study – Pearson's Correlation

Experimental Data

Experimental Results

Concluding Statement

10.4 Case Study – Spearman's Correlation

Experimental Data

Experimental Results

Concluding Statement

Tutorials

10.5 Pearson's Correlation Excel and Numbers Tutorial

Pearson's Correlation Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

10.6 Spearman's Correlation Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

10.7 Pearson/Spearman's Correlation SPSS Tutorial

Pearson's and Spearman's Correlation SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

10.8 Pearson/Spearman's Correlation R Tutorial

Pearson's and Spearman's Correlation R Tutorial

Concluding Statement

11 Linear Regression

11.1 Linear Regression Background

Regression Nuts and Bolts

Generalized Hypotheses

Assumptions

11.2 Case Study

Experimental Data

Experimental Results

Concluding Statement

Tutorials

11.3 Linear Regression Excel Tutorial

Linear Regression Excel Tutorial

Concluding Statement

11.4 Linear Regression SPSS Tutorial

Linear Regression SPSS Tutorial

Concluding Statement

11.5 Linear Regression Numbers Tutorial

Linear Regression Numbers Tutorial

Concluding Statement

11.6 Linear Regression R Tutorial

Linear Regression R Tutorial

Concluding Statement

12 Basics in Excel

12.1 Opening Excel

12.2 Installing the Data Analysis ToolPak

12.3 Cells and Referencing

12.4 Common Commands and Formulas

Subtraction

Addition

12.5 Applying Commands to Entire Columns

12.6 Inserting a Function

12.7 Formatting Cells

13 Basics in SPSS

13.1 Opening SPSS

13.2 Labeling Variables

13.3 Setting Decimal Placement

13.4 Determining the Measure of a Variable

13.5 Saving SPSS Data Files

13.6 Saving SPSS Output

14 Basics in Numbers

14.1 Opening Numbers

14.2 Common Commands

Addition

Subtraction

14.3 Applying Commands

14.4 Adding Functions

15 Basics in R

15.1 Opening R

15.2 Getting Acquainted with the Console

Principles Behind R Programming

The Command Prompt and Bottom Bar

Vectors, Strings, Factors, and Data Frames

Functions and Arguments

Test a Particular Vector Within a Data Frame

15.3 Loading Data

Manually Inputting Data

Loading a .csv File

15.4 Installing and Loading Packages

Installing R Packages

Loading a Package

15.5 Troubleshooting

16 Appendix

Flow Chart

Literature Cited

Glossary

Index

EULA