Chapter
2 Engineering Fundamentals
2.2 Notation, Units, and Conversion Factors
2.2.2 Abbreviations and Symbols
2.2.3 Base Quantities and Dimensions
2.2.4 Units and Conversion Factors
2.2.6 Scalar and Vector Quantities
2.3 Mass, Momentum, Weight, and Gravity
2.3.4 Gravitational Acceleration
2.3.5 Influence of an Aircrafts Motion on Its Apparent Weight
2.3.6 Actual Versus Standard Gravitational Acceleration
2.4 Basics of Rigid Body Dynamics
2.4.1 Newtons Laws of Motion
2.4.3 Motion With Respect to a Moving Datum (Reference System)
2.5 Basics of Fluid Dynamics
2.5.1 Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity
2.5.2 Pressure in Fluids At Rest
2.5.3 Mass Flow Rate and Continuity of Flow
2.5.4 Newtons Second Law Applied to Fluid Flow
2.5.5 Bernoulli Equation for Incompressible Flow and Dynamic Pressure
2.5.7 Specific Heats of a Gas
2.5.8 Adiabatic Processes
2.5.9 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
2.5.10 Total Temperature and Total Pressure
2.5.11 Bernoulli Equation for Compressible Flow
3 Aerodynamic Fundamentals
3.2 Standard Definitions and Notation
3.2.1 Airfoil Section Definitions
3.2.2 Wing Geometric Definitions
3.2.3 Geometric Definitions for the Empennage
3.3 Coordinate Systems and Conventions
3.3.5 Flight Path (or Velocity or Wind) Axis System
3.3.6 Force and Moment Components
3.4 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
3.4.1 Airfoil Pressure Distribution
3.4.2 Two-Dimensional Aerodynamic Forces and Coefficients
3.4.3 Two-Dimensional Lift Coefficient
3.4.4 Two-Dimensional Drag Coefficient
3.4.5 Two-Dimensional Aerodynamic Center and Pitching Moment
3.4.6 Three-Dimensional Aerodynamic Coefficients
3.4.7 Effects of Finite Span on the Lift Curve
3.4.9 Aerodynamic Effect of a Plain Flap
3.4.10 Aerodynamic Effect of a Slot in Multi-Element Airfoils
3.5.1 Incompressible Flow
3.5.3 Shocks and Transonic Flow
3.6.1 General Features of the Boundary Layer
3.6.2 Transition and Turbulent Boundary Layers
3.6.4 Boundary Layer Separation
3.7.1 Requirement for High Lift
3.7.2 Trailing Edge Flaps
3.7.3 Leading Edge Devices
3.8 Controls for Pitch, Roll, and Yaw
3.8.2 Pilots Primary Flight Controls
3.8.7 Flight Control Systems
4.2 International Standard Atmosphere
4.2.1 Introduction to Standard Atmospheric Models
4.2.2 Principal Features of the ISA
4.2.3 Relative Temperature, Relative Pressure, and Relative Density
4.2.4 Temperature, Pressure, and Density in the ISA
4.3 Non-Standard and Off-Standard Atmospheres
4.3.1 Non-Standard Atmospheres
4.3.2 Off-Standard Atmospheres
4.3.3 Height Scales in Off-Standard Atmospheres
4.3.4 Determination of Density in Non-Standard Conditions
4.5.1 Impact on Airplane Performance
4.5.2 Wind Reporting and Forecasts
4.5.5 Temperature Inversions
4.5.7 Precipitation and Icing
4.5.8 Visual and Instrument Meteorological Conditions
4.5.9 Weather Information for Flight Operations
4.6 Stability of the Atmosphere
4.6.1 Adiabatic Lapse Rate
4.6.3 Unstable Atmospheres
5 Height Scales and Altimetry
5.2.2 Geopotential Height
5.3.2 QNE or Standard (STD) Setting
5.3.5 Illustration of Altimeter Settings
5.3.6 Altitude Correction: STD to QNH
5.3.7 Altitude Correction for Non-Standard Temperature Conditions
5.3.8 Instrument and Static Pressure Errors
5.4 Flight Levels, Tracks, and Airspace
5.4.2 Transition Altitude and Transition Level
5.4.3 Air Traffic Tracks and Usable Flight Levels
5.4.4 Airspace Classification
6.2.1 Units of Measurement
6.2.4 Great Circle Distance
6.2.5 Rhumb-Line Distance
6.3 True Airspeed, Ground Speed, and Navigation
6.3.2 Ground Speed and Navigation
6.4 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
6.5 Dynamic Pressure and Equivalent Airspeed
6.5.2 Equivalent Airspeed
6.6.2 Pitot–Static System
6.6.3 Compressibility Correction Factor
6.6.4 Expressions for Calibrated Airspeed
6.7.1 Instrument Indicated Airspeed
6.8 Relationship Between Airplane Speeds
6.8.1 Summary of Airplane Speeds
6.8.2 Speed Variation During a Constant CAS Climb
7.2.1 Airplane Lift and Lift Coefficient
7.2.2 Lift Coefficient Versus Angle of Attack
7.2.3 Lift Coefficient in Straight, Level (i.e., Constant Height) Flight
7.2.4 Influence of CG on the Lift Curve
7.2.5 Lift Coefficient in Maneuvering Flight
7.2.6 Lift Coefficient in Cruise
7.2.7 Lift Coefficient in Takeoff and Landing
7.3.4 Lift-Dependent Drag
7.4.2 Typical Drag Versus Lift Relationship
7.4.3 Low-Speed Drag Polars
7.4.4 High-Speed (Transonic) Drag Polars
7.4.5 Effect of Camber and Wing Twist on the Drag Polar
7.4.6 Drag Polar Represented by the Sum of Two Parabolic Segments
7.4.7 Drag Polars with Higher-Order Terms
7.4.8 Drag Polars: Concluding Remarks
7.5 Drag Polar Corrections
7.5.2 Influence of Aircraft Configuration on the Drag Polar
7.5.3 Longitudinal Trim Drag and Center of Gravity Location
7.5.4 Powerplant Considerations
7.5.5 Drag Increments Due to Inoperative Engine(s)
7.5.6 Ground Effect and Its Influence on the Drag Polar
7.5.7 Excrescence Drag and Drag “Growth”
7.5.8 Atmospheric Conditions (Reynolds Number Correction)
7.5.9 Aeroelastic Wing Shape Change
7.6.2 Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio
7.6.3 Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar
7.7 Minimum Drag Condition
7.7.2 Minimum Drag Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar
7.8 Minimum Drag Power (Required Power) Condition
7.8.2 Minimum Drag Power Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar
7.9 Minimum Drag-to-Speed Ratio Condition
7.9.2 Minimum Value of the Drag-to-Speed Ratio
7.9.3 Minimum Value of the Drag-to-Speed Ratio Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar
7.9.4 Concluding Remarks—Minimum Value of the Drag-to-Speed Ratio
7.10 Summary of Expressions Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar
8.2 Basic Description of the Turbofan Engine
8.2.1 Basic Principle of Operation
8.2.2 Main Engine Components and Systems
8.2.3 Station Identification
8.2.4 Thermodynamic Cycle
8.2.7 Mass Flow and Bypass Ratio
8.2.8 Engine Rotor Speeds
8.2.9 Corrected Engine Parameters
8.2.10 Indicated Engine Parameters
8.3.1 Basic Thrust Equation for a Turbojet Engine
8.3.2 Basic Thrust Equation for a Turbofan Engine
8.3.3 Influence of Airplane Speed
8.3.4 Generalized Thrust Functions
8.3.5 Overall Engine Efficiency
8.4 Fuel Flow and Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
8.4.1 Fuel Flow Definitions
8.4.2 Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
8.4.3 Cruise TSFC Variation
8.4.4 Corrected Fuel Flow
8.5 Thrust Control, Engine Design Limits, and Ratings
8.5.3 Thrust Setting Parameters
8.5.4 Engine Design Limitations
8.5.5 Standard Thrust Ratings
8.5.6 Design of Engine Rating Structure
8.5.7 Engine Setting Parameters for Rated Thrust
8.5.8 Takeoff Thrust Bump
8.5.9 Reduced and Derated Takeoff Thrust
8.6.1 Functional Relationship and Performance Trends
8.6.2 Effect of Ambient Pressure
8.6.3 Effect of Ambient Temperature
8.6.4 Effect of Airplane Speed on Takeoff Thrust
8.6.5 Effect of Altitude and Speed on Climb Thrust
8.7 Fuel Flow and TSFC Variation
8.7.1 Functional Relationships and General Performance Trends
8.7.2 Fuel Flow Data and Models
8.7.3 TSFC Models and Idealizations
8.7.4 TSFC Variation with Engine Rotational Speed
8.8 Installation Losses and Engine Deterioration
8.8.1 Installation Effects
8.8.2 Intake (Inlet) Total Pressure Loss
8.8.5 Engine Deterioration
9.2.1 Runway Surface Conditions
9.2.2 Required Runway Distances for Takeoff on a Dry or Wet Surface
9.2.3 All-Engines-Operating Takeoff Distance on a Dry Runway
9.2.4 One-Engine-Inoperative Takeoff Distance on a Dry Runway
9.2.5 Rejected Takeoff Distance Following an Engine Failure on a Dry Runway
9.2.6 All-Engines-Operating Rejected Takeoff Distance on a Dry Runway
9.2.7 One-Engine-Inoperative Takeoff and Rejected Takeoff Distances on a Wet Runway
9.3 Forces Acting on the Airplane During the Ground Run
9.3.1 Vector Diagram and Overview of the Forces Acting on an Airplane
9.3.4 Lift and Drag Forces
9.3.5 Airplane Configuration
9.3.8 Net Acceleration Force
9.4 Evaluation of the Takeoff Distance from Brake Release to Rotation
9.4.1 Basic Equation for the Takeoff Distance sR
9.4.2 Determination of the Distance sR Assuming FN is Constant
9.4.3 Determination of the Distance sR Using a Mean Acceleration
9.4.4 Numerical Evaluation of the Distance sR
9.4.5 Estimation of the Time to Reach VR
9.5 Rotation and Climb-Out to Clear the Screen Height
9.5.2 Estimation of the Rotation Distance
9.5.3 Energy Method to Estimate the Distance from Liftoff to 35ft
9.5.4 Time-Based Method to Estimate the Distance from Liftoff to 35ft
9.6 Empirical Estimation of Takeoff Distances
9.6.2 Takeoff Parameter for All-Engines-Operating Condition
9.6.3 Takeoff Parameter for One Engine Inoperative
9.7 Evaluation of Rejected Takeoff Runway Distances
9.7.1 Regulations Regarding the Rejected Takeoff (RTO)
9.7.2 Requirements for the Accelerate–Stop Distance on a Dry Runway
9.7.3 Requirements for the Accelerate–Stop Distance on a Wet Runway
9.7.4 Evaluation of the Accelerate–Stop Distance
9.8.1 Brake System Design
9.8.2 Airplane Braking Coefficient
9.8.3 Slip and Anti-Skid Systems
9.8.4 Maximum Brake Torque Limit
9.8.5 Runway Pavement Construction
9.8.6 Wet Runway Conditions
9.8.7 Determination of the Braking Force
9.9 Takeoff on Contaminated Runways
9.9.1 Contaminated Runway Conditions
9.9.3 Dynamic Hydroplaning
9.9.4 Estimating Takeoff and RTO Distances on Contaminated Runways
10 Takeoff Field Length and Takeoff Climb Considerations
10.2 Takeoff Reference Speeds
10.2.2 Regulatory Definitions of Key Reference Speeds
10.3 Takeoff Weight Limitations
10.3.2 Structural-Limited Weights and Certified Weights
10.3.3 Runway-Limited Takeoff Weights
10.3.4 Climb-Gradient-Limited Weights
10.3.5 Obstacle-Clearance-Limited Weights
10.3.7 Brake Energy Limit
10.3.8 Forward Center of Gravity Limit
10.4 Runway Limitations and Data
10.4.1 Approved Runway Data
10.4.2 Runway Identification
10.4.3 Runway Slopes (Gradients)
10.4.4 Declared Runway Distances
10.4.7 Clearways and Stopways—Concluding Remarks
10.4.8 Line-Up Corrections (Allowances)
10.4.9 Runway (Pavement) Loading Limits
10.5 Operational Field Length and Runway-Limited Takeoff Weight
10.5.1 Field-Length-Limited TOW
10.5.2 Overview of Requirements
10.5.3 Balanced and Unbalanced Field Lengths
10.5.4 Operations from a Runway with a Clearway
10.5.5 Operations from a Runway with a Stopway
10.5.6 Permissible Range of V1 and TOW for a Given Field Length (Takeoff Web Chart)
10.6 Takeoff Climb Gradient Requirements
10.6.1 Takeoff Climb Gradient Requirements (FAR/CS 25.121)
10.6.2 Takeoff Path Requirements (FAR/CS 25.111)
10.6.3 Climb-Limited Takeoff Weight
10.7 Takeoff Climb Obstacle Clearance
10.7.1 Obstacle Clearance Requirements
10.7.2 Demonstrating Compliance with the Obstacle Clearance Requirements
10.7.3 Impact of Turns on Obstacle Clearance
10.7.4 Obstacle-Limited Takeoff Weight
10.8 Derated Thrust and Reduced Thrust Takeoff
10.8.3 Regulatory Basis for Reduced Thrust Operations
10.8.4 Reduced Takeoff Thrust: Assumed Temperature Method
10.8.5 Derated Thrust and Reduced Thrust Takeoff Speeds
11.2 Procedure for Approach and Landing
11.3 Forces Acting on the Airplane During the Ground Run
11.3.1 Vector Diagram and Forces Acting on the Airplane
11.3.2 Influence of the Wind
11.3.3 Thrust and Reverse Thrust
11.3.4 Lift and Drag Forces
11.3.5 Airplane Configuration
11.3.9 Net Deceleration Force
11.4 Landing Distance Estimation
11.4.1 Total Landing Distance
11.4.3 Transition Segment
11.4.4 Braking Segment: Governing Equation
11.4.5 Braking Segment: Stopping Distance Estimation
11.5 Empirical Estimation of the Landing Distance
11.5.2 Basic Relationship
11.6 Landing on Contaminated Runways
11.6.1 Runway Contaminants
11.6.2 Runway Condition Reporting
11.6.3 Determination of the Landing Distance
11.7.1 Instrument Approach Systems
11.7.2 Approach Requirements
11.7.4 Regulatory Requirements for Landing
11.7.5 Certified Landing Distances
11.7.6 Factored Landing Field Lengths
11.7.7 Wind Considerations
11.7.8 Brake Heating Considerations
11.8.1 Discontinued Approach and Go-Around
11.8.2 Climb Requirements Following a Rejected Landing
12 Mechanics of Level, Climbing, and Descending Flight
12.2 Basic Equations of Motion
12.2.1 Curvilinear Motion Applied to Airplane Flight
12.2.2 General Equations for Climb, Descent, and Level Flight
12.3 Performance in Level Flight
12.3.1 Level (Constant Height) Accelerated Flight
12.3.2 Level (Constant Height) Unaccelerated Flight
12.3.3 Graphical Representation of Steady-State Flight Performance
12.4 Performance in Climbing Flight
12.4.1 Climb–Speed Schedules
12.4.2 Angle of Climb and Climb Gradient (Still Air Conditions)
12.4.3 Climb Angle and Climb Gradient for Constant-Speed Climb
12.4.5 Rate of Climb for Constant True Airspeed Climb
12.4.6 Best Rate-of-Climb Speed
12.4.7 Summary of Climb Speeds
12.4.9 Distance Covered in the Climb (in Still Air)
12.4.10 Effect of Altitude on Climb Performance
12.4.11 Effect of Temperature on Climb Performance
12.4.12 Effect of Airplane Weight on Climb Performance
12.4.13 Effect of Uniform Wind on Climb Performance
12.4.14 Effect of Wind Gradients on Climb Performance
12.4.15 Effect of Up- or Downdrafts on Climb Performance
12.4.16 Effect of an Engine Failure on Climb Performance
12.5 Performance in Descending Flight
12.5.1 Angle of Descent and Descent Gradient
12.5.3 Time and Distance in Descent
12.5.4 Descent–Speed Schedules
12.5.5 Glide Angle for Unpowered Flight
13 Cruising Flight and Range Performance
13.2 Specific Air Range and Still Air Range Determination
13.2.1 Distance and Speed Definitions
13.2.2 Specific Air Range
13.2.4 Range Determination Based on Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption
13.2.5 Range Determination Based on Overall Engine Efficiency
13.3 Analytical Integration
13.3.1 Flight Schedules for Cruise Range Estimation
13.3.2 First Flight Schedule
13.3.3 Second Flight Schedule
13.3.4 Third Flight Schedule
13.3.5 Summary of Range Expressions and Concluding Remarks
13.4 Numerical Integration
13.4.1 Integrated Range Method
13.4.2 Example of Numerical Computation
13.4.3 Integrated Range Chart
13.5 Cruise Optimization Based on Aerodynamic Parameters
13.5.1 Introduction to Cruise Optimization
13.5.2 Flight Condition for Maximum Range: Solution
13.5.3 Range Optimization Based on the ME (i.e., ML/D) Parameter
13.5.4 Altitude-Constrained Optimum Based on the ME (i.e., ML/D) Parameter
13.5.5 Thrust-Constrained Optimum Based on the ME (i.e., ML/D) Parameter
13.5.6 Limitations of Optima Based on the ME (i.e., ML/D) Parameter
13.6 Best Cruise Speeds and Cruise Altitudes
13.6.1 Maximum Range Cruise Speed
13.6.2 Economy Cruise Speed
13.6.3 Long Range Cruise Speed
13.6.4 Comparison of Cruise Speeds
13.7 Further Details on the Use of the Bréguet Range Equation
13.7.1 General Formulations
13.7.2 Constant-Altitude Cruise and the Use of Mean Values
13.7.3 Fuel Required for Specified Range
13.8 Influence of Wind on Cruise Performance
13.8.1 Specific Ground Range
13.8.3 Maximum Ground Range Speed
13.8.4 Optimum Cruise Speeds Based on Specific Ground Range
13.8.5 Wind Gradients and Wind–Altitude Trades
14 Holding Flight and Endurance Performance
14.2 Basic Equation for Holding/Endurance
14.3 Analytical Integration
14.3.1 Flight Schedules for Holding/Endurance
14.3.2 First and Second Flight Schedules
14.3.3 Third Flight Schedule
14.4 Numerical Integration
14.4.1 Integration Method
14.4.2 Example of Numerical Computation
14.5 Flight Conditions for Maximum Endurance
14.5.1 Minimum Drag Speed Based on the Parabolic Drag Polar
14.5.2 Minimum Drag Speed Based on Actual Drag Polars
14.5.3 Optimum Speed for Endurance
14.5.4 Optimum Altitude for Endurance
14.6.1 Holding Procedures
14.6.4 Holding with One Engine Inoperative
15 Mechanics of Maneuvering Flight
15.2.1 Turning Maneuvers: Types of Turns
15.3 Level Coordinated Turns
15.3.1 Forces and Load Factor in a Level Coordinated Turn
15.3.4 Lift, Drag, and Thrust in a Level Turn
15.3.5 Minimum Drag Speed in a Turn
15.3.6 Impact of Wind on Turning Flight Paths
15.4 Climbing or Descending Turns
15.4.1 Climb Angle and Climb Gradient in a Turn
15.4.2 Reduction in Climb Angle (or Climb Gradient) in a Steady-Speed Turn
15.4.3 Reduction in Rate of Climb in a Steady-Speed Turn
15.5 Level Uncoordinated Turns
15.5.1 Forces and Load Factor in a Level Uncoordinated Turn
15.5.2 Turn Rate and Turn Radius
15.6 Limits and Constraints in Turning Maneuvers
15.6.1 Limiting Factors in Turns
15.6.2 Maximum Lift Coefficient
15.6.3 Structural Design Limits
15.6.5 Available Thrust and Turning Limits
15.6.6 Operational Limits and Constraints
15.7.2 Symmetrical Pitching Maneuvers
15.8.2 Total Energy Expression
15.8.3 Specific Energy (Energy Height)
15.8.4 Specific Excess Power
15.8.5 Total Energy Performance Graphs (Charts)
16 Trip Fuel Requirements and Estimation
16.3.2 US Domestic Operations
16.3.3 FAA International Operations
16.3.4 FAA “Island” Reserves
16.5 Trip Fuel Computational Procedure
16.6 Payload–Range Performance
16.6.1 Basic Payload–Range Diagram
16.6.3 Alternative Form of the Payload–Range Diagram
16.6.4 Impact of MTOW Increase on the Payload–Range Diagram
16.6.5 Impact of OEW Increase on the Payload–Range Diagram
16.6.6 Impact of Fuel Capacity Increase on the Payload–Range Diagram
16.7 Trip Fuel Breakdown and Fuel Fractions
16.7.1 Typical Fuel Breakdown by Mission Sector
16.8 Trip Fuel Estimation
16.8.1 Overhead Approximation
16.8.2 Lost Energy Corrections to the Overhead Approximation
16.8.3 Estimating Fuel for a Specified Range
16.8.4 Step-Climb Correction
16.9 Estimating Trip Distances (To Be Flown)
16.9.1 Factored Great Circle Distance
16.9.2 Horizontal En Route Flight Efficiency
16.10 Transporting (Tankering) Fuel
16.10.2 Analysis of Transporting Fuel
16.11.2 Mission Profile for Reclearance
16.12 Factors That Can Impact Cruise Fuel
16.12.1 Book Level and Baseline Level Airplane Performance
16.12.2 Reference Conditions for Cruise Performance
16.12.4 Barometric Pressure Gradient
16.12.5 Temperature Variations
16.13 Impact of Small Changes on Cruise Fuel
16.13.2 Mathematical Expression for Small Changes
17 En Route Operations and Limitations
17.2 Climb to Initial Cruise Altitude (En Route Climb)
17.2.1 Climb–Speed Schedules
17.2.2 Determination of the Crossover Height
17.2.3 Constant Rate-of-Climb Schedule
17.2.4 Derated Climb Thrust Settings
17.3 Cruise Altitude Selection
17.3.1 Ceiling Definitions
17.3.2 Initial Cruise Altitude
17.3.3 Cruise Altitudes for Short Stages
17.3.4 Cruise Step-Climb Schedule
17.4 En Route Engine Failure
17.4.1 En Route Obstacle Clearance
17.4.2 One-Engine-Inoperative Performance Requirements
17.4.3 Two-Engine-Inoperative Performance Requirements
17.4.4 Route Planning and Drift-Down Flight Paths
17.4.5 Performance Analysis Following Single or Multiple Engine Failure(s)
17.4.6 Drift-Down Target Speed
17.5 En Route Cabin Pressurization Failure
17.5.1 En Route Obstacle Clearance
17.5.2 Route Planning Considerations
17.6.2 Approval for Extended Operations
17.6.3 ETOPS (Twin Operations) Tracks and Area of Operations
17.6.4 Fuel Planning for ETOPS (Twin Operations)
17.7 Continuous Descent Operations
18.2 Airplane Operating Costs
18.2.1 Cost Accounting and Financial Data
18.2.2 Financial Models for Operating Costs
18.2.3 Direct and Indirect Operating Costs
18.2.5 Airplane Economic Measures
18.3.2 Cost Index Definition
18.3.3 Cost Index and ECON Mach Number for Still Air Cruise
18.3.4 Economy Cruise Cost Function
18.3.5 Flight Operations and the Flight Management System
18.3.6 Cost Index and Climb Performance
18.3.7 Cost Index and Descent Performance
18.4.1 Metrics for Unit Energy Cost (Energy Efficiency)
18.4.3 Energy Usage and Energy Intensity
18.4.4 Payload Fuel Energy Intensity
19 Weight, Balance, and Trim
19.2 Airplane Weight Definitions
19.2.1 Weight/Mass Distinction
19.2.2 Airplane Weight Definitions and Breakdown
19.2.3 Structural-Limited Design Weights
19.2.4 Certified and Operational Weights
19.3.2 Load and Balance Diagram/CG Envelope
19.3.3 Fore and Aft CG Limits on the Load and Balance Diagram
19.3.4 Alternate Forward CG for Takeoff
19.4 Longitudinal Static Stability and Stabilizer Trim
19.4.1 Operation of the Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer
19.4.2 Equilibrium and the Basic Trim Equation
19.4.3 Longitudinal Static Stability Margin
19.4.4 Stabilizer Position for Trim
19.4.5 Speed Stability and Longitudinal Static Margin
19.4.6 Stability Augmentation
19.5 Center of Gravity Control
19.5.1 Aerodynamic Advantage of CG Control
19.5.2 Fuel Management System for CG Control
19.6 Operational Weights and Dispatch Procedures
19.6.1 Operational Loading Procedures
19.6.2 CG Checks for Dispatch
19.6.3 Operating Empty Weight (OEW)
19.6.4 Standard Crew Weights
19.6.5 Passenger and Baggage Weights
19.7 Performance Implications
19.7.1 Impact on Fuel Burn of a Weight Increase or the Carriage of Excess Weight
19.7.2 Impact of CG Location on Drag and Specific Air Range
19.7.3 Impact of CG Location on Stall Speed and Takeoff and Landing Performance
20 Limitations and Flight Envelope
20.2.2 Maximum Lift Coefficient and Airplane Configuration
20.2.3 Evaluation of Stall Speeds
20.2.4 Factors That Influence Stall Speeds
20.3.1 Introduction to High-Speed Buffet
20.3.2 Buffet Onset Speeds
20.3.3 Altitude Selection
20.4 Altitude–Speed Limitations
20.4.1 Altitude Limits (Ceiling)
20.5 Key Regulatory Speeds
20.5.1 The 1-g Stall Speed (FAR 25 Amendment 25-108)
20.5.2 Reference Stall Speed (VSR)
20.5.3 Operational Limit Speeds
20.6 Structural Design Loads and Limitations
20.6.3 Flight Envelope Protection
20.7 V–n Diagram (Flight Load Envelope)
20.7.1 Purpose of the V–n Diagram
20.7.2 Flight Maneuvering Envelope
20.7.3 Limit Maneuvering Load Factors
20.7.6 Airplane Design for Gust Loads
20.7.7 Gust-Induced Loads
20.7.9 Combined V–n Diagram
21.2.1 Impact of Airplane Noise
21.2.2 Human Perception of Noise
21.2.3 Perceived Noise Level
21.3 Noise Regulations and Restrictions
21.3.1 Historical Overview
21.3.3 Local Authority Restrictions
21.4 Noise Abatement and Flight Operations
21.4.1 Noise Abatement Procedures
21.4.2 Departing Aircraft
21.5.2 Principal Aircraft Engine Emissions
21.5.3 Contrails and Aviation-Induced Cloudiness
21.5.4 Environmental Impact of Aircraft Emissions
21.6 Mitigating the Effects of Airplane Emissions
21.6.1 Mitigation Measures
21.6.2 ICAO Aircraft Carbon Dioxide Emissions Certification Standard
21.6.3 International Agreements on Emissions
22 Airplane Systems and Performance
22.2 Reliability Requirements for Airplane Systems
22.3 Cabin Pressurization System
22.3.1 Human Performance and Limitations at Altitude
22.3.2 Cabin Altitude in Cruise
22.3.3 Cabin Pressure Regulation in Climb and Descent
22.3.4 Cabin Pressurization System Failure and Supplemental Oxygen Supply
22.4 Environmental Control System
22.4.2 Impact on Airplane Performance
22.5 De-Icing and Anti-Icing Systems
22.5.2 De-Icing and Anti-Icing Systems
22.5.3 Impact on Airplane Performance
22.6 Auxiliary Power System
22.7 Fuel and Fuel Systems
22.7.2 Fuel Heating Value (Energy Content)
22.7.3 Influence of Gravimetric Heating Value on Specific Air Range
22.7.4 Influence of Gravimetric Heating Value on Cruise Fuel
22.7.5 Influence of Fuel Energy Content on Payload–Range
22.7.6 Low Temperature Operations
22.7.7 Fuel Jettison System
23 Authorities, Regulations, and Documentation
23.2 International Civil Aviation Organization
23.2.2 The Convention on International Civil Aviation
23.2.3 Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection
23.3 Aviation Authorities
23.3.2 Federal Aviation Administration
23.3.3 European Aviation Safety Agency
23.3.4 Aviation Authorities Worldwide
23.4 Regulations, Certification, and Operations
23.4.2 Certificate of Airworthiness and Type Certificate
23.4.3 Requirements for Airplane Certification
23.4.4 Requirements for Airplane Operations
23.4.5 Continued Airworthiness and Safety Notifications
23.4.6 Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)
23.4.7 Instructional or Educational Publications
23.5 Safety Investigation Authorities
23.5.2 Safety Investigations
23.5.3 Safety Investigation Authorities
23.6 Non-Governmental Organizations
23.6.2 International Air Transport Association
23.6.3 International Federation of Air Line Pilots’ Associations
23.6.4 Flight Safety Foundation
23.6.5 Air Transport Action Group
23.7 Airplane and Flight Crew Documentation
23.7.1 Airplane/Aeroplane Flight Manual
23.7.2 Flight Crew Operations/Operating Manual
23.7.3 Quick Reference Handbook
23.7.4 Flight Crew Training Manual
23.7.5 Flight Planning and Performance Manual
23.7.6 Performance Engineers Manual
23.7.7 Weight and Balance Manual
23.7.8 Minimum Equipment List and Configuration Deviation List
23.7.9 Airplane/Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning Manual
23.7.10 Supplemental Documents
23.8 Airplane Performance Data
23.8.1 Performance Data Generation
23.8.2 SCAP (Standardized Computerized Aircraft Performance)
Appendix A International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) Table
Appendix B Units and Conversion Factors
B.2 Other Systems of Units and Conversion Factors
Appendix C Coordinate Systems and Conventions
C.2.1 Roll, Pitch, and Yaw Angles
C.2.3 Azimuth Angle and Flight Path Angle
C.2.4 Angle of Attack and Angle of Sideslip
Appendix D Miscellaneous Derivations
D.2 Fundamental Fluid Properties
D.2.2 Bernoulli Equation for Compressible Flow
D.2.3 Binomial Expansion of the Bernoulli Equation
D.3 Acceleration Factors for Climb/Descent
D.3.1 Acceleration Factors in the ISA
D.3.2 Constant Mach Number Climb/Descent in the ISA
D.3.3 Constant EAS Climb/Descent in the ISA
D.3.4 Constant CAS Climb/Descent in the ISA
D.3.5 Acceleration Factors in Off-Standard Atmospheres
D.4 Wind Gradient Correction for Rate of Climb/Descent
D.5 Still Air Range Equations for Various Flight Schedules
D.5.1 Flight Schedules for Range Equations
D.5.2 Constant Altitude and Constant Lift Coefficient
D.5.3 Constant TAS and Constant Lift Coefficient
D.5.4 Constant Altitude and Constant TAS
Appendix E Trim and Longitudinal Static Stability
E.2 Definitions and Conventions
E.2.1 Definitions of Angles, Derivatives, and Coefficients
E.2.2 Pitch Flight Control and Trim
E.3 Conditions for Longitudinal Static Stability
E.3.1 Equilibrium Condition
E.3.2 Static Stability Criteria
E.4 Simplified Trim Equation
E.4.1 Simplifications and Assumptions
E.4.2 Summation of Moments About the CG
E.4.3 Static Stability and Neutral Point
E.4.4 Tailplane Contribution to the Airplanes Static Stability
Appendix F Regulations (Fuel Policy)
F.2 Fuel Planning: EASA Basic Procedure
Appendix G Abbreviations and Nomenclature
G.1 Mathematical Notation
G.3 Abbreviations and Acronyms
Performance of the Jet Transport Airplane
：Analysis Methods, Flight Operations, and Regulations
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