Chapter
1.10 The phase object approximation
1.11 Aberration and the contrast transfer function
Part A Diffraction of reflected electrons
2 Reflection high-energy electron diffraction
2.1 The geometry of RHEED
2.2 Surface crystallography
2.2.1 Surface reconstruction
2.2.2 Two-dimensional reciprocal space
2.3 Streaks and Laue rings in RHEED
2.4 Determination of surface structures
2.5 RHEED oscillation and its application in MBE crystal growth
2.6 The kinematical diffraction theory of RHEED
2.6.1 Perfectly ordered surfaces
2.6.2 Completely disordered surfaces
2.6.3 Surfaces with islands
2.6.5 Surfaces with randomly distributed coverage
2.7 Kikuchi patterns in RHEED
3 Dynamical theories of RHEED
3.1 The Bloch wave theory
3.2 Parallel-to-surface multislice theories
3.3 Parallel-to-surface multislice theories II
3.4 Perpendicular-to-surface multislice theory
3.4.1 Multislice solution of the Schrödinger equation for transmission electron diffraction
3.4.2 Applications in RHEED calculations
3.5 Diffraction of disordered and stepped surfaces
3.5.1 A perturbation theory
4 Resonance reflections in RHEED
4.2 The resonance parabola and the resonance condition
4.3 The width of the resonance parabola
4.5 Dynamical calculations of resonance scattering
4.5.1 Low-incidence-angle resonance
4.5.2 High-incidence-angle resonance
4.5.3 Resonance at a stepped surface
4.5.4 A steady state wave at a surface
4.6 The effect of valence excitation in resonance reflection
4.6.1 A simplified theory
4.6.2 The effect on surface resonance
4.7 Enhancement of inelastic scattering signals under the resonance condition
Part B Imaging of reflected electrons
5 Imaging surfaces in TEM
5.1 Techniques for studying surfaces in TEM
5.1.1 Imaging using surface-layer reflections
5.1.2 Surface profile imaging
5.1.3 REM of bulk crystal surfaces
5.2 Surface preparation techniques
5.2.1 Natural or as-grown surfaces
5.2.2 Re-crystallization from melting
5.2.3 Annealing polished surfaces
5.2.4 Cleaving bulk crystals
5.3 Experimental techniques of REM
5.3.2 Microscope pre-alignment
5.3.4 Diffraction conditions for REM imaging
5.3.5 Image recording techniques
5.4 Foreshortening effects
5.5 Surface refraction effects
5.7 The surface mis-cut angle and step height
5.8 Determining surface orientations
5.9 Determining step directions
6 Contrast mechanisms of reflected electron imaging
6.3 Spatial incoherence in REM imaging
6.4 Source coherence and surface sensitivity
6.5 The effect of energy filtering
6.6 Determining the nature of surface steps and dislocations
6.8 High-resolution REM and Fourier imaging
6.8.1 Imaging a reconstructed layer
6.9 Depth of field and depth of focus
6.10 Double images of surface steps
6.11 Surface contamination
7 Applications of UHV REM
7.1 UHV microscopes and specimen cleaning
7.2 In situ reconstruction on clean surfaces
7.3 Surface atom deposition and nucleation processes
7.4 Surface-gas reactions
7.5 Surface electromigration
7.6 Surface ion bombardment
7.7 Surface activation energy
8 Applications of non-UHV REM
8.1 Steps and dislocations on metal surfaces
8.2 Steps on semiconductor surfaces
8.4 In situ dynamic processes on ceramics surfaces
8.5 Surface atomic termination and radiation damage
8.6 Reconstruction of ceramic surfaces
8.7 Imaging planar defects
8.8 As-grown and polished surfaces
PartC Inelastic scattering and spectrometry of reflected electrons
9 Phonon scattering in RHEED
9.1 Inelastic excitations in crvstals
9.2.2 The effect of atomic vibrations on the crystal potential
9.2.3 Electron-phonon interactions
9.3 The 'frozen' lattice model
9.4 Calculation of the Debye-Waller factor
9.5 Kinematical TDS in RHEED
9.6 Dynamical TDS in RHEED
9.6.1 The reciprocity theorem
9.6.2 The Fourier transform of Green's function
9.6.3 Green's function theory
9.6.4 A modified parallel-to-surface multislice theory
10 Valence excitation in RHEED
10.1 EELS spectra of bulk crystal surfaces
10.2 The dielectric response theory of valence excitations
10.3 Interface and surface excitations
10.3.1 Classical energy-loss theory
10.3.2 Localization effects in surface excitation
10.4 The average number of plasmon excitations in RHEED
10.5 Excitation of a sandwich layer
10.6 The dielectric response theory with relativistic correction
10.6.1 Maxwell's equations
10.6.2 Valence excitation near an interface
10.6.3 The transverse force on an incident electron
10.6.4 Calculation of REELS spectra
10.7 The quantum theory of valence excitation
10.7.1 The quantum mechanical basis of the classical theory
10.7.2 The density operator and dielectric response theory
10.8 Determination of surface phases
10.9 Multiple-scattering effects
10.9.1 Poisson's distribution law
10.9.2 Measurement of electron penetration depth
10.9.3 Measurement of electron mean traveling distance along a surface
11 Atomic inner shell excitations in RHEED
11.1 Excitation of atomic inner shell electrons
11.2 Atomic inner shell excitation in reflection mode
11.5 Surface chemical microanalysis
11.6 The effect of strong Bragg beams
11.7 Resonance and channeling effects
11.8 Effective ionization cross-sections
11.9 Impurity segregation at surfaces
11.10 Oxygen adsorption on surfaces
12 Novel techniques associated with reflection electron imaging
12.1 Scanning reflection electron microscopy
12.1.1 Imaging surface steps
12.1.2 Imaging dislocations
12.2 Secondary electron imaging of surfaces
12.3 EDS in RHEED geometry
12.4 Electron holography of surfaces
12.4.1 Principles and theory
12.4.2 Surface holography
12.5.1 Atomic-resolution surface imaging
12.5.2 Artifacts in STM imaging
12.6 Time-resolved REM and REM with PEEM
12.7 Total-reflection X-ray spectroscopy in RHEED
12.8 Surface wave excitation Auger electron spectroscopy
Appendix A Physical constants, electron wavelengths and wave numbers
Appendix B The crystal inner potential and electron scattering factor
Appendix C.I Crystallographic structure systems
Appendix C.2 A FORTRAN program for calculating crystallographic data
Appendix D Electron diffraction patterns of several types of crystal structures
Appendix E.I A FORTRAN program for single-loss spectra of a thin crystal slab in TEM
Appendix E.2 A FORTRAN program for single-loss REELS spectra in RHEED
Appendix E.3 A FORTRAN program for single-loss spectra of parallel-to-surface incident beams
Appendix E.4 A FORTRAN program for single-loss spectra of interface excitation in TEM
Appendix F A bibliography of REM, SREM and REELS
Reflection Electron Microscopy and Spectroscopy for Surface Analysis
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